NON- 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



ELEMENTS 



OF 




ENGLISH GRxiMMAR, 



SYNTHETIC AND ANALYTIC. 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF 






, 



litotes, anb tribute %mmi. 



BY 



ANDREW BURT'T, A.M. 



PITTSBURGH: 
PUBLISHED BY A. E. ENGLISH ' £\ 

ID STREET. ^t£t~J ' 

1 



# LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.? 



[UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. J 

MS 






PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



ELEMENTS 



OF 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



SYNTHETIC AND ANALYTIC. 



DESIGNED FOR THE USE OP 



Stfywls, jHtomtts, roto fxMt f raters. 



BY 



AM)KEW BUETT, A.M. 



V 



PITTSBURGH: 
PUBLISHED BY A. H. ENGLISH & CO. 



No. 79 WOOD STREET. 



/-% 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by 

A. H. ENGLISH & CO, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the "Western 
District of Pennsylvania. 

frfEftEOTTPED BY L. JOHNSON & COV 
PHILADELPHIA. 



PKEFACE. 



This work is designed to be a plain, concise, 
and practical treatise on the subject of English 
Grammar. No effort has been spared to present, 
arrange, and illustrate the well-established princi- 
ples of the language, so as to render them easily 
comprehended, and hence attractive to the young 
learner. 

A considerable space has been devoted to fur- 
nishing models, which, it is believed, will be found 
very beneficial to both pupil and teacher, as they 
will serve to suggest the manner in which the 
lesson may be prepared and the recitation con- 
ducted. 

Analysis of sentences has been fully presented, 
and is placed as the last division of Syntax. 
Teachers who wish to introduce the analysis at 
an earlier stage of the pupil's progress than that 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

indicated by its relative position can easily do so ; 
for it is not supposed that the teacher is bound in 
all cases to follow the arrangement of the text. 

The author acknowledges himself much in- 
debted to a number of eminent teachers for valu- 
able aid in preparing the work; especially to 
B. M. Kerr, A.M., for important suggestions rela- 
tive to analysis of sentences, and Miss Martha 
Glass, to whose inspection and criticism the entire 
work has been submitted. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. 



PAGK 



Language and its Divisions 7 

English Grammar and its Principal Divisions 8 

PART L— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Oral Sounds 10 

Letters 11 

Elementary Sounds 15 

Syllables and Accent 18 

Words Classified 20 

Capital Letters, when used > 24 

PART IL— ETYMOLOGY. 

Division I. — Parts of Speech defined and illustrated 26 

The Noun 27 

The Pronoun 29 . 

The Adjective 30 

The Verb 31 

The Adverb 32 

The Preposition ". 34 

The Conjunction 35 

The Interjection 37 

Remarks on the Parts of Speech 38 

Exercise in Naming the Parts of Speech 40 

ETYMOLOGY.— DIVISION II. 

Nouns, Classification of 45 

Modifications of 47 

Rules for Forming the Plural 51 

Rules for Forming the Possessive Case , 58 

Exercise in Parsing Nouns 61 

Pronouns, Classification of 63 

Modifications of 68 

Exercise in Parsing Pronouns 70 

Adjectives, Classification of 73 

Comparison of 75 

Exercise in Parsing Adjectives 78 

Verbs, Classification of. 80 

Modifications of 85 

Participles 91 

Auxiliary Verbs , 92 

Synopsis of Modes and Tenses 94 

Remarks on Modes and Tenses 99 

Conjugation of the Verb 103 

List of Irregular Verbs 110 

Exercise in Parsing Verbs 114 

Adverbs, Classification of 118 

Exercise in Parsing Adverbs 120 

Prepositions 121 

Exercise in Parsing Prepositions 122 

1* 5 



CONTENTS. 



PASS 

Conjunctions, Classification of 123 

Exercise in Parsing Conjunctions 126 

Interjections 127 

Exercise in Parsing Interjections... 128 

Expletives 129 

Exercise in Parsing Expletives 129 

Examples for Parsing 130 

PART III.— SYNTAX. 

Rules of Syntax 133 

Remarks on Peculiar Constructions 135 

Transposition 136 

Models for Parsing, Short Method 137 

Examples for Parsing and Analysis 141 

Rules of Syntax, with Examples, Remarks, and False Syntax 151 

Rule I. — Nominatives 151 

Rule II. — Apposition 152 

Rule III. — Possessives 153 

Rule IV. — Absolute Case 155 

Rule V. — Adjectives ... 156 

Rule VI.— Pronouns 160 

Rule VII.— Double Relatives 163 

Rule VIII. — Agreement of Verbs , 163 

Rule IX.— Objects of Verbs 165 

Rule X. — Predicate Nominative 167 

Rule XL— Infinitives 168 

Rule XII. — Substantives taken together 169 

Rule XIII. — Substantives taken separately 170 

Rule XIV.— Adverbs 172 

Rule XV. — Prepositions 174 

Rule XVI. — Objects of Prepositions 175 

Rule XVII— Conjunctions 176 

Rule XVIIL— Interjections 177 

Remarks on the Use of Verbs 178 

Vulgarisms 181 

Improper Expressions Promiscuously Arranged 183 

Analysis of Sentences 186 

Sentences, Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative 186 

The Proposition Defined , 187 

Models and Examples for Analysis 187 

Sentences, Simple and Compound 188 

Elements of Sentences, Words, Phrases, and Clauses 188 

The Office of the Elements 190 

Principal Elements, Grammatical and Logical 191 

Models and Examples for Analysis 192 

Elements, Simple and Compound 195 

Independent Expressions 196 

Models and Examples for Analysis 197 

Compound Sentences 199 

Models and Examples for Analysis 200 

Objects and Attributes 203 

Expanding and Abridging 204 

Short Method of Analyzing, with Examples 205 

PART IV.— PROSODY. 

Punctuation 213 

Figures 219 

Versification 222 



GRAMMAR 



Grammar is the science of language. 

Language is the medium for the communication 
of thought. 

A medium is the means by or through which 
any thing is done. 

Language is divided into spoken and written. 
Spoken language is the utterance of significant 
oral sounds to express thought. 

Significant sounds are those which convey a 
meaning. 

Oral sounds are those which are made by the 
human voice. 

Written Language is a system of characters or 
letters used by common consent to represent spoken 
language. 

Many nations have a language peculiar to them- 
selves; as the French^ German, Italian, &c. 

There are, therefore, many languages. 

The principal difference between languages is 
that different sounds are used to express the same 
thought. 

By studying English Grammar, we may learn to 
speak and write the English language correctly. 



8 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Questions. — What is Grammar? What is language? 
What is a medium? How is language divided? What is 
spoken language? What is meant by significant sounds ? 
By oral sounds ? What is written language ? Is there 
but one language, or many ? Name as many as you can 
recollect. What is the principal difference between lan- 
guages? When persons use the same sounds to express 
the same thoughts, do they speak the same or different lan- 
guages ? When do they speak different languages ? What 
language do you speak ? How may you learn to speak 
and write the English language correctly ? What language 
is used in all printed books ? What language is used in 
speaking or singing ? 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and 
writing the English language correctly. 

Speaking and writing correctly means in accord- 
ance with the usage of good speakers and writers. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Sim studies is incorrect : it should be, u He studies/ 9 be- 
cause it is so expressed by good speakers and writers : if, 
however, it were good usage to write Sim studies, it would 
then be correct. Good usage is, therefore, the standard of 
grammatical accuracy. 

Grammar is generally divided into four parts, 
namely, Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and 
Prosody. 

Orthography treats of oral sounds, letters, syl- 
lables, words, and spelling. 

Etymology treats of the derivation, classification, 
and modification of words. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 9 

Syntax treats of the arrangement of words in 
sentences. 

Prosody treats of punctuation and versification. 

Hence the first two treat of the formation of 
words, and the last two, of the formation of sen- 
tences. 

Questions. — What is English Grammar ? What is meant 
by speaking and TNrriting correctly? Why is the expression 
Sim studies incorrect ? What should it be ? and why ? If 
good writers used the expression Sim studies, would it be 
correct? Is the expression It was me correct? What 
should it be ? and why ? What, then, is the standard of 
grammatical accuracy ? Into how many parts is Grammar 
generally divided? What are they called? Of what does 
Orthography treat? Etymology? Syntax? Prosody? 
Of what do the first two treat ? The last two ? 

Note. — When questions are inserted which are not answered in the 
text, it is intended that the pupil shall exercise his judgment or consult 
his dictionary. 



10 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



PART L 

OBTHOGKAPHY. 

Orthography is the art of spelling words correctly : 
it treats of oral sounds, letters, syllables, words, 
and spelling. 

SOUNDS. 

A simple or single oral sound is called an 
elementary sound. 

In the English language there are about forty 
elementary sounds ; but authors differ with regard 
to the number. 

Elementary sounds are divided into three kinds, 
called Vocals, Subvocdls, and Aspirates. 

Vocals consist of pure tone, or voice. 

Subvocals are imperfect tones, or voice and breath 
united. 

Aspirates are breath only. 

Questions. — What is Orthography? Of what does it 
treat? What is a sound? What is an oral sound? 
What is a significant sound ? What is an audible sound ? 
What is an elementary sound? How many elementary 
sounds in the English language ? Do authors agree with 
regard to the number ? How many kinds of elementary 
sounds? What are they called? Describe a vocal. 
Describe a subvocal. Describe an aspirate. What sounds 
do we use in reading and talking aloud ? What sounds do 
we use in whispering ? 



BURST'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 



LETTERS. 

Letters are characters used by common consent 
to represent the sounds used in spoken language. 

In the English language there are twenty-six let- 
ters, which, when arranged in the following order, 
are called the English Alphabet: — a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, 
i, j, k, 1, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z. 

Letters are of three kinds, — Roman, Italic, and 



Roman letters form the principal part of all printed 
matter. 

The Italic are used for the purpose of emphasis 
or distinction. 

Words which the author considers of special importance 
are in Italics, to mark the emphasis. 

The silent letters in spellers are generally in Italics, to 
distinguish them from those which represent sounds. 

In the English Bible, the words supplied by the trans- 
lators are in Italics, to distinguish them from those found 
in the original. 

Script is generally used to represent manuscript. 

Questions. — What are letters ? How many are used in 
the English language ? When arranged in order, what are 
they called ? Name them in alphabetical order. How 
many kinds of letters? What are they called ? What do 
Roman letters form ? For what are Italic letters used ? 
What is meant by emphasis ? By distinction ? What 
words are italicized to mark emphasis? For what are 
Italics generally used in spellers ? What words are itali- 
cized in the English Bible ? For what is script generally 
used ? What is manuscript ? 



12 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 





1U.^X1.> • 




^ 


o\- 


'XW.IT A • 


Capital. 


Small, 


Capital. 


Small. 


Capital. 


Small. 


A 


a 


A 


a 


4 


a 


B 


b 


B 


b 


<$> 


6 


C 


c 


C 


c 


<e 


€ 


D 


d 


D 


d 


w 


d 


E 


e 


E 


e 


§ 


e 


F 


f 


F 


f 


0> 


i 


G 


g 


G 


9 


f 


9 


H 


h 


H 


h 


4 


h 


I 


• 
1 


I 


• 


$ 


V 


J 


J 


J 


3 


/ 


/ 


K 


k 


K 


k 


CM 


lo 


L 


1 


L 


I 


SB 


I 


M 


m 


M 


m 


®M 


m 


N 


n 


N 


n 


# 


n 














e 


o 


P 


P 


P 


P 


ip 


A 


Q 


q 


Q 


Q 


s 


f 


R 


r 


R 


r 


m 


fc 


S 


s 


S 


s 


& 


6, 


T 


t 


T 


t 


§ 


4 


U 


u 


U 


u 


M 


a 


V 


V 


V 


V 


f 


V 


w 


w 


w 


w 


W 


u> 


X 


X 


X 


X 




X 


T 


y 


Y 


y 


% 


y 


Z 


z 


Z 


z 


1 


; 


& 




& 




f 





BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 

Each kind of letters has two forms, — CAPITAL 
and small. 

Capitals are used for ornament and emphasis, 
and also for commencing certain words. 

Small letters are those principally used in ordinary 
printing or writing. 

Letters are divided with reference to oral sounds 
into three classes, called vowels, consonants, and 
mutes. 

A vowel is a letter which represents a vocal. 

A consonant is a letter which represents a sub- 
vocal or an aspirate. 

A mute is a letter which represents no sound, 
and is sometimes called a silent letter. 

A and e when not silent are always vowels. 

I, o, u, w, and y may be vowels or consonants. 

B, c > d >f> 9> Kii h \ m , n 9 p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z are 
always consonants. 

B, d, g, j, I, m, n, r, v, w, y, z, always represent 
subvocals. 

E, 7c, p, q, t always represent aspirates. 

G, s, f, x sometimes represent subvocals and 
sometimes aspirates. 

A silent letter is neither a vowel nor a consonant, 
but a mute. Most of the letters are sometimes 
mutes. 

Questions. — How many forms has each kind of letters ? 
"What are they called? What are small letters? For 
what are capitals used ? How are letters divided with 
reference to oral sounds? What is a vowel? What is a 
consonant ? What is a mute ? Which letters, when not 

2 



14 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

mutes, are always vowels ? Which letters may be vowels 
or consonants? Which letters are always consonants? 
Which consonants always represent subvocals ? Which 
consonants always represent aspirates? Which consonants 
may represent snbvocals or aspirates ? What may most of 
the letters be ? Is a mute a vowel, or a consonant ? Why ? 

SOUNDS AND LETTERS. 

There are fourteen simple vocals and two com- 
pound vocals, fifteen subvocals, and ten aspirates. 

These are represented by single letters, double 
vowels, double consonants, combinations, and diph- 
thongs. 

A double vowel is a vowel taken twice to repre- 
sent one sound ; as, oo in good, or ee in tree. 

A double consonant is two consonants taken to 
represent one sound; as, th in the, or ng in song ; or 
it may be the same consonant taken twice; as, 11 in 
bell, or ss in miss. 

A combination is the union of a vowel and con- 
sonant representing but one sound ; as ti, si, and ci 
in nation, vision, social. 

A diphthong is a union of two vowels in one syl- 
lable, representing a compound vocal ; as, oi in boil, 
and ou in our. 



Note. — The terms improper diphthong and triphthong are omitted, as 
the author supposes them to be unnecessary. 

An improper diphthong is a vowel and a mute. A triphthong is a con- 
sonant and a diphthong, as, uoy in buoy, or uoi in quoit ; or a vowel and 
two mutes, as, iew in view. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 15 

Questions. — How many simple vocals? How many com- 
pound vocals ? How many subvocals ? How many as- 
pirates ? Do these belong to spoken or written language ? 
What is a double vowel ? Give some examples of words con- 
taining double vowels. What is a double consonant ? Give 
examples of words containing double consonants. What is a 
combination? Give examples of words containing combina- 
tions. What is a diphthong ? Give examples of words con- 
taining diphthongs. 

ILLUSTRATION OF THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

Simple Vocals. 

1. a long... ape, fete, they, rain, reign. 

2. a grave. .arm, ask, calm, heart, ah. 

3. a broad..all, law, nor, broad, aught. 

4. a short.. .at, can, sat, drab, fancy. 

5. e long ...me, see, seize, shire, quay. 

6. e short.. .met, men, any, said, bury. 

7. i long.... ire, die, eye, my, buy. 

8. i short... it, hymn, been, bwsy, pretty. 

9. o long ...old, door, boat, sew, beaux. 

10. o close. ..do, tour, pool, move, prove. 

11. o short ..on, not, what, was, squat. 

12. u long...nrwte, mule, ruse, -pure, eube. 

13. u short. .wp, fer, sir, rough, flood. 

14. u close. ..Ml, put, wolf, wool, would. 

Compound Vocals. 

1. oi or oy...oil, toil, quoit, boy, joy. 

2. ou or ow..out, thou, now, brow, town. 



Subvocals. 

1. b...6e, ebb, rob, barb, bulb. 

2. d...do, did, and, kind, bind. 



16 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

S. g-..0ay, gone, grhost, gong, got. 

4. j.— joy, June, jam, fm, ginger. 

5. l....Zad, Zet, teK, fiK, ZuM. 

6. m...man, men, mum, him, hum. 

7. n...no, not, on, nun, nine. 

8. r....run, red, roar r are, far. 

9. v...van, vine, save, have, Stephen. 

10. w...we, wet, wise, one, quit. 

11. y....ye, yes, you, alien, use. 

12. z....£, zone, zero, k, suffice, #erxes. 

13. z... .azure, glacier, measure, leisure. 

14. th. My, the, with, this, benea^A. 

15. ng..song, sung, thin^, bank, think. 

Aspirates. 

1. f..../an, if, laugh, rough, phase. 

2. h...Ae, Ais, Aold, Aarm, hand. 

3. k....Aid, kite, in#, cat, #uit, lock. 

4. p.,. pin, pen, up, map, lip. 

5. S....SO, sum, miss, vice, cent. 

6. t....£in, ten, net, at, fixed, locked. 

7. ch..cAin, chime, church, such. 

8. th ..thin, thing, faith, truth, youth. 

9. sh ..shy, shun, ocean, portion, pension, social, sure. 
10.*wh..wAen, where, why, what, who. 

EXERCISE. 

Models for describing letters and elementary sounds. 

Same : — is a word containing three elements, which aref 
s, a, m. 

s is a consonant with an aspirate sound, 
a is a vowel with its long sound. 

* This is a compound aspirate, being the sounds of h and w united, 
f Let the pupil utter the elements without naming the letters, except when 
the vowels have their name-sounds. 



BURTT's ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IT 

m is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 
€ is a mute. 

Thing : — is a word containing three elements, which are 
th-i-ng. 

th is a double consonant with an aspirate sound. 

i is a vowel with its short sound. 

ng is a double consonant with a subvocal sound. 

Coughed : — is a word containing four elements, which are 
k-au-f-t. 

c is a consonant with the aspirate sound of h 

o is a vowel with the broad sound of a. 

u is a mute. 

gh is a double consonant with the aspirate sound of /, 

e is a mute. 

d is a consonant with the aspirate soun^ of t. 

Quotient : — is a word containing seven elements^ which 
are k-w-o-ti-e-n-t. 

q is a consonant with the aspirate sound of A*. 

u is a consonant with the subvocal sound of w. 

o is a vowel with its long sound. 

ti is a combination with the aspirate sound of sh~ 

e is a vowel with its short sound. 

n is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

t is a consonant with an aspirate sound. 

Boyhood :— is a word containing five elements, which are 
b-oy-h-oo-d. 

b is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

oy is a proper diphthong proper sound. 

% is a consonant with an aspirate sound. 

oo is a double vowel with the close sound of a. 

d is a consonant with a subvocal sound. 

2* 



18 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Words to be described according to the foregoing models. 

Fame, surely, nauseate, emotion, ocean, social, 
national, Savior, soldier, convey, church, that, 
measure, zealous, syllables, vexed, text, once, 
abounding, annoying, phrase, toiled, township, 
loquacious, auction, grazier, brasier, inch, laugh, 
rough, phlegm, been, Stephen, examine, eulogy, 
abroad, Xerxes, prove, beaux, beauty, said, many, 
marine, unseen, floor, flood, food, book, thatched, 
suffixes, archbishop, architect, acknowledge, sy- 
nopsis, ascetic, rhinoceros, assure, gazette, rejoice, 
employ, aqueous, sardonyx, psalmody, raspberry, 
raillery, halcyon, handkerchief, filial, bilious, 
seraglio, onion, eight, abominable, alphabetically. 

SYLLABLES AND ACCENT. 

A syllable is a word or part of a word which 
may be pronounced with one impulse of the voice. 

To give proper utterance to words, one or more syllables 
must be pronounced more forcibly than the others : this is 
called accent. Therefore, 

Accent is stress of voice placed on certain syl- 
lables of words, to give them proper expression ; 
as, ba in baker. 

When a word has two syllables accented, one accent is 
stronger than the other, and is called the primary; and 
the weaker is called the secondary. Therefore, 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 

Primary accent is a full stress of voice placed on 
a certain syllable of a word. 

Secondary accent is the weaker of two accents 
occurring in the same word; as, in popularity, the 
primary accent is on the third syllable, and the 
secondary on the first. 

Accent does not apply to words of one syllable, except 
with regard to poetry. 

Questions. — What is a syllable ? How many syllables in 
the word man ? In mankind ? In lived ? In landed ? 
In extempore? In extraordinary? What is necessary to 
give proper utterance to words? What is this called? 
What, then, is accent ? AVhat is primary accent ? What 
is secondary accent? Does accent apply to words of one 
syllable ? 

Tell what syllables are accented in the following words. 

Thankful, until, primary, animal, opponent, mis- 
chievous, integral, interesting, museum, lyceum, 
artificer, advertise, ascertain, antediluvian, simpli- 
fication, obligatory, combating, depot, costume, 
preferable, comparable, recess, contrary. 



WOEDS. 

Words are expressions used by common consent 
as the signs of ideas. 

They may be divided, with reference to the divi- 
sions of language, into two kinds, written and spolcen. 



20 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

A written word is so much of the language as by 
custom is expressed separately in writing. 

A spoken word is the utterance of the sound or 
sounds represented by the written word. 

Words are divided with reference to their syl- 
lable into monosyllables, dissyllables, trisyllables 
and polysyllables. 

A monosyllable is a word of one syllable. 

A dissyllable is a word of two syllables. 

A trisyllable is a word of three syllables. 

A polysyllable is a word of four or more syllables. 

DERIVATION.* 

Words are divided, with reference to derivation, 
into primitive and derivative. 

Derivation treats of radicals or roots, prefixes, 
and suffixes. 

A radical or root is a word in its simplest form. 

A prefix is one or more syllables placed before 
the radical. 

A suffix is one or more letters or syllables placed 
after the radical. 



* Derivation properly belongs to the department of Et3 T mology : it is 
introduced here for the purpose of haying the several classifications 
together. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 21 

Prefixes and suffixes are generally used to modify 
the meaning of the root. 

A primitive word is the root or radical word ; as, 
man, true, learn. 

A derivative word is one formed from a radical by 
adding a prefix, suffix, or both; as, man/^, un- 
true, unle&nied. 



COMPOUNDS. 

Words are divided with reference to simplicity 
into simple and compound. 

A simple word is one which cannot be separated 
into two words ; as, learn, grieve. 

A compound word is one formed by uniting two 
or more simple w r ords; as, something, heretofore, 
inkstand. 

Compound words are of two kinds, separable and 
consolidated. 

A separable compound is one having the simple 
words which compose it joined by a hyphen ; as, 
red-hot, barn-door. 

A consolidated compound is one in which the 
simple words are joined without the hyphen ; as, 
nothing, gentleman. 

Questions. — What are words ? How may they be divided ? 
What is a written word? A spoken word? How are 



22 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

words divided with reference to their syllables ? What is 
a monosyllable ? A dissyllable ? A trisyllable ? A poly- 
syllable ? 

How are words divided with reference to derivation ? 
Of what does derivation treat ? What is a radical ? A pre- 
fix ? A suffix ? For what are prefixes and suffixes generally 
used ? What is a primitive word ? A derivative ? 

How are words divided with reference to simplicity ? 
What is a simple word ? A compound word ? How are 
compound words divided ? What is a separable compound? 
A consolidated compound ? 

To what part of grammar does derivation properly be- 
long ? (See note, page 20.) 

EXERCISE. 

Models for describing words and accents. 
Book is a monosyllable : it is a primitive word. 

Study is a dissyllable, accented on the first : it is a primi- 
tive word. 

Dishonest is a trisyllable, accented on the second : it is a 
derivative word : honest is the root, dis is the prefix. 

Mismanagment is a polysyllable, composed of four sylla- 
bles, accented on the second : it is a derivative word : 
manage is the root, mis is the prefix, and ment the suffix. 

Whithersoever is a polysyllable, composed of five syllables, 
having the primary accent on the first syllable, and the 
secondary on the fourth : it is a compound word, formed 
by uniting whither, so, and ever. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 



Describe the following words* 

Built, heard, horses, something, governed, mu- 
seum, praiseworthy, thoughtfulness, generosity, 
capitalist, notwithstanding, abecedarian, hereto- 
fore, dismissed, commenced, hyperbole, extraordi- 
nary, quarrelsome, superfluous, vehemently, anti- 
trinitarianism, circumpolar, etymology, combined, 
scholarship, derivative, alphabetically, analytically, 
commonwealth, bookselling, malefactor, sympathy, 
superiority, animation, inquiry, camphene, extant, 
supernatural, respectable, intermediate, phenome- 
non, remediless, hymeneal, vibratory, numerator, 
commenced, impressed, blasphemously, unconquer- 
able, uninteresting, construe, obligatory, assets, sine- 
cure, acknowledgment, overburden, professorship, 
alabaster, advertiser, adulatory, celibacy, enlighten, 
indictment, consented, measured, indecorous, coad- 
jutor, semicolon, notwithstanding, nevertheless. 

SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by the 
proper letters. 

Spelling is not generally included in the grammar-recita- 
tions, but is learned by studying the speller and dictionary, 
and by writing dictation-exercises, &c. 

* Let the pupil consult his dictionary, and be careful to accent the 
proper syllables. 



24 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

DIRECTIONS FOR USING CAPITALS. 

1. The words / and should be written in 
capitals ; as, 0, sir ! but I was there. 

Certain words should begin with capitals, gene- 
rally in accordance with the following directions : — 

2. The first word of every distinct sentence ; as, 
Go quickly. Study carefully. 

3. The first word of every line of poetry ; as,, 

See, the time for sleep has run : 
Rise before, or with, the sun. 

4. All names of the Deity; as, God; The 
Supreme Being; Our Father in heaven; Our 
Blessed Savior. 

5. All proper names and words derived from 
proper names; as, Rome; France; a Roman soldier; 
the French people. 

6. Titles of honor or respect ; as, Her Majesty ; 
His Excellency; Your Grace. 

7. The first word of a direct quotation; as, 
The poet says, " Be wise to-day." 

8. Words which represent inanimate objects as 
persons ; as, Better to sit in Freedom's hall ; Doth 
not Wisdom cry, and Understanding put forth her 
voice ? 

9. The principal words in the titles of books; 
as, A Treatise on the English Language. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 

He said that I lived in Boston. 
He begins with a capital, because it is the first word of a, 
distinct sentence. 
J is a capital, because it is the word 7. 
Boston begins with a capital, because it is a proper name. 

Tell why the capitals are used in the folloiving sen- 
tences. 

He cried aloud, "0, sir, it was I." 

Have you read Pope's Essay on Man ? 

The French officer rode on an Arabian horse. 

Assyria, Greece, Borne, Carthage, what are they ? 

The principal races of mankind are the Cau- 
casian, the Mongolian, the African, the American, 
and the Malay. The most famous Grecian orator 
was Demosthenes. Then Agrippa said unto Paul, 
** Thou art permitted to speak for thyself." 

Hearken to the voice of Wisdom. 

Nothing great is lightly won ; 

Nothing won is lost ; 
Every good deed nobly done 
Will repay the cost. 

The first class use Osgood's Fifth Reader. Hark! 
Truth proclaims thy triumphs cease. Joy has her 
tears, and Transport has her death. I saw his 
Excellency the President of the United States. 
Did you see Her Majesty, Queen Victoria ? 

Remember the great Being who has made all 
things. 



26 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



PAET II. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Division 1. 

Etymology treats of the derivation, classification, 
and modification of words. 

Derivation is drawing or forming words from 
their roots. It has been treated of in the previous 
chapter. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Classification is twofold, — the classification of 
words into parts of speech, and the classification 
of the parts of speech into divisions. 

The former may be called the classification of 
words, and the latter, the classification of parts of 
speech. 

Words are divided, with reference to their signi- 
fication and use, into sorts or classes, called parts of 
speech. 

THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 

There are eight parts of speech, the Noun, Pro- 
noun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Con- 
junction, and Interjection. 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

Questions. — What is the second general division of English 
Grammar called? Of what does etymology treat? What 
is derivation ? Where has it been treated of? What is said 
of classification ? What may the first division of classifi- 
cation be called ? The second ? How are words divided 
with reference to their signification and use ? How many 
are the parts of speech ? What are they called ? 

THE NOUN. 

A noun is the name of an object ; as, man, river, 
truth. 

The word noun signifies name. 

1st. It may be the name of a visible object; as, John, city, 
book. 

2d. It may be the name of a thing invisible or indefinite 
as, nothing, something, any thing, space, time. 

3d. It may be the name of a quality apart from its pos- 
sessor; as, goodness, wisdom, truth. 

4th. It may be the name of an action without reference 
to the actor; as, Walking is pleasant. Beading is profitable. 
To lie is base. 

5th. It may be a word, letter, or sign spoken of; as, 
Good is a monosyllable. A is an article. Without one if 
or but. Cross your fs and dot your i y s.+denotes addition. 

Questions. — What is a noun? Give examples. What 
does the word noun signify ? 

What may it be 1st ? Give examples. 

What may it be 2d? Give examples. 

What may it be 3d? Give examples. 

What may it be 4th? Give examples. 

What may it be 5th ? Give examples. 

In this last sense, may not any word become a noun ? 



28 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell which words are nouns, and why, in the follow- 
ing sentences. 

Washington was a native of Virginia. Peter 
and John went to the temple. The moon and 
stars were shining. George or James will go. 
Wisdom is better than riches. Wealth often pro- 
duces misery. Grammar is the science of lan- 
guage. London is the largest city in the world. 
A is the first letter of the alphabet. E is the letter 
most frequently used. A good name is rather to 
be chosen than great riches. Spelling, Reading, 
Writing, and Arithmetic are the most important 
studies of the school-room. Industry, constancy, 
and discretion will insure success. Eunning is a 
pleasant exercise. The Greeks took Troy by 
stratagem. Studies serve for delight, for orna- 
ment, and for ability. Remember this truth, that 
God is the common parent of all mankind. Im- 
provement and pleasure are the products of in- 
dustry. 

Let each pupil write on his slate a number of nouns. 

1st. Which are the names of visible objects. 

2d. The names of things invisible or indefinite. 

3d. Of qualities apart from their objects. 

4th. Of actions without reference to the actor. 

5th. Of words, letters, and signs spoken of as things. 

Let the nouns of the last two divisions be used in 
sentences. 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 29 

THE PRONOUN. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
George has a book, and he studies it. 

Pro means for: hence pronoun means for a noun. 

The following words are generally used as pronouns. 
I, my, mine, me; We, our, ours, us; Ye, you, your, 
yours; Thou, thy, thine, thee; He, his, him; She, her, 
hers; It, its; They, their, theirs, them; Who, whose, 
■whom, which, that; myself, ourselves, thyself, yourself, 
himself, herself, itself, yourselves, themselves; what, what- 
ever, whatsoever, whoever, whosoever, whosesoever, which- 
ever, whichsoever. 

REMARK. 

The noun for which a pronoun is used is not always 
expressed : it is sometimes understood ; as, You and I will 
go ; and it is sometimes indefinite ; as, He who studies will 
improve. . 

Questions. — What is a pronoun? What does pro mean? 
What does pronoun mean? In the sentence "George has a 
book, and he studies it," which words are pronouns ? and 
why? What words are generally used as pronouns? Is 
the noun for which a pronoun is used always expressed ? 
What may it be ? 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
James is kind to Ms parents, and they love him. 
His is a pronoun, because it is a word used instead of 
the noun James. 

They is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the noun 
parents. 

Him is a pronoun, because it is a word used instead of 
the noun James. 

a* 



30 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Describe the pronouns in the following sentences. 

Ann has a fine book, and she studies it. A 
teacher loves his pupils when they respect him. 
We esteem our friends, because they are kind to 
us. I heard you recite your lesson, and you recited 
it well. The boy who studies will improve. Do 
you know the lady whose house we occupy? 
Whatever is, is right. I heard what you said. 
I knew the lady when she spoke to me. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun ; as, A good 
boy. That man. You are industrious. 

The word adjective means joined to. 

Questions. — What is an adjective ? What does the word 
adjective mean ? 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
A diligent &tu&<dYit will become a good scholar. 

A is an adjective, because it is a word used to limit the 
meaning of the noun student. 

Diligent is an adjective, because it is a word used to 
qualify the meaning of the noun student. 

A is an adjective, because it is a word used to limit the 
meaning of the noun scholar. 

Good is an adjective, because it is a word used to qualify 
the meaning of the noun scholar. 

Tell ivhich icords are adjectives in the following 
sentences^ and why. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 31 

A good book is a choice treasure. Good, studious 
boys learn many long, hard lessons. A wise son 
makes a glad father. A kind look gladdens the 
heart. Large, deep rivers float long, heavy rafts. 
He is wise. You are young. They are noble. 
We are needy. Gold is heavy and precious. A 
virtuous man loves virtuous men. She was young, 
noble, and beautiful. 

EXERCISE. 

Models for exercise in using adjectives. 
Trees. 1st. High trees, low trees, large trees, small trees, 
young trees, old trees, many trees, some trees, ten trees, 
no trees, &c. 

2d. The trees are high. The trees are low. The trees 
are large. The trees are small. The trees are green. The 
trees are dead. The trees are useful, &c. 

Let the pupil write on his slate for recitation as many ap- 
propriate adjectives to each of the following nouns as he can 
think of using each of the models : Books, horses, house, 
bird, man, garden, water, school, ink, apple, river, pen, 
grass, carriage, street, desk, beauty, sun, son, pupil, &c. 



THE VERB. 

A verb is a word* which signifies to be, or to do; 
as, They are. John .writes. 

The term verb means word. 



* The term "word," as here, used signifies part of speech: strictly 
speaking, the verb and some of the other parts of speech often include 
everal words. 



32 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

The verb often includes two or more words ; as ? John 

has been working. It might Imve been accomplished. 

Questions. — What is a verb ? What does the word verb 
mean ? Is the verb always a single word ? What does it 
often include ? 

EXERCISE. 

Model 
The sun shines, and it is very warm. 
Shines is a verb, because it signifies to do. 7s is a verb, 
because it signifies to be. 

Tell which words are verbs, and why, in the follow- 
ing sentences. 

The fire burns. Birds fly. Horses trot. The 
wind blows. Pupils study. They learn. You 
read. We write. The stars twinkle. The moun- 
tains stand. They are. She is. I rest. Trees 
grow. They increase. He must go. He has 
gone. It will be finished. You may play. She 
has read. He will have written. It rains. It 
thunders. It must have been chosen. He can 
come. It may be said. He is walking. They are 
coming. It must be done. 

THE ADVERB. 

An adverb is a word used to modify the sense 
of a verb, adjective, or another adverb ; as, The bird 
sings sweetly. The tree was very high. She reads 
remarkably well. 

An adverb generally denotes time, place, quantity, 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

manner, or negation ; as, He came yesterday. He 
came here. He wants little. He recites well. He 
hears not. 

The word adverb means joined to a verb. 

Questions. — What is an adverb ? Kepeat the first sentence, 
and tell which word is an adverb, and why. The second. 
The third. What does an adverb generally denote ? Ke- 
peat the first sentence given as an example, and tell which 
word is an adverb, and what it denotes. The second. The 
third. The fourth. 

EXERCISE 

Model 

Be very careful to understand well what you study, and 
then you will improve very fast. 

Very is an adverb, because it modifies the sense of the 
adjective careful. 

Well is an adverb, because it modifies the sense of the 
verb to understand. 

Then is an adverb, because it modifies the sense of the 
verb will improve. 

Very is an adverb, because it modifies the sense of the 
adverb fast. 

Fast is an adverb, because it modifies the sense of the 
verb will improve. 

Tell which words are adverbs, and why, in the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

He acts justly. He reads badly. Come here. 
Stop there. It is known everywhere. "Washington 
was a truly great man. You knew him very well. 
Vice may be seen too often. "Vfe cannot act too 



34 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



wisely. When will he come ? Where do you live ? 
How much did he take ? Why did he run so fast? 
He does not like study . Will you not go ? I am 
extremely weary. John is diligently employed. 
Act wisely and prudently. 



THE PEEPOSITIOK 

The Preposition is a word used to express the 
relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word; 
as, The love of wisdom. Walk before him. % He 
lives in the city. 

The word preposition means placed before. 
Some of the most common prepositions are — 



about, 


below, 


near, 


above, 


beneath, 


of, 


according to, 


beside, 


on, 


across, 


between, 


out of, 


after, 


beyond, 


over, 


against, 


i>y, 


through, 


along, 


concerning, 


to, 


amid, 


down, 


towards, 


amidst, 


during, 


under, 


among, 


except, 


up, 


amongst, 


for, 


unto, 


around, 


from ; 


upon, 


at, 


in, 


with, 


before, 


into, 


within, 


behind, 


instead of, 


without. 



Questions.-^rWh&t is a preposition? Repeat the first 
sentence given as an example, and tell which word is a 
preposition, and why. The secpncl. Tb e third. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

What does the word preposition mean ? 
Eepeat some of the most common prepositions. 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
The way of the wicked leads to ruin. 

Of is a preposition, because it shows the relation between 
the words way and wicked. 

To is a preposition, because it shows the relation between 
leads and ruin. 

Tell the jarepositions, and why, in the following 
sentences. 

Go to the city. He lives in Pittsburgh, on 
Wood Street. He went over the river. Walk 
in the path of virtue. The love of money is the 
root of all evil. The book lay before him on the 
table. He will return during the day. He rode 
in the cars to New York. By his imprudence, 
he got into difficulty. He went up the road, 
and down the lane, and across the field, and 
into the barn. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses; as, John and James were 
there. He commenced to teach and to preach. 
Jane went to the country, but John came to the 
city. 



36 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

The word conjunction means connecting or join- 
ing together. 

The principal words used as conjunctions are — 
And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, therefore, 
wherefore, provided, besides, but, or, not, as, than, lest, 
though, unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, 
nevertheless, except, whether, whereas, as well as, inas- 
much as. 

Questions. — What is a conjunction ? Eepeat the first 
sentence given as an example, and tell which word is a 
conjunction, and why. The second. The third. What 
does the word conjunction mean ? 

EXERCISE. 

Models. 

Wisdom or folly governs us. 

Or is a conjunction, because it connects the words wis- 
dom and folly. 

She dreamed of her home, and of her parents. 
And is a conjunction, because it connects the phrases of 
her home and of her parents. 

I wrote, because it amused me ! 

Because is a conjunction, because it connects the clauses 
I wrote and it amused me. 

Tell which words are conjunctions, and why, in the 
following sentences. 

God created the heaven and the earth. A great 
and good man has fallen. John is good, therefore 
he is happy. Dispel the mist and clear the skies, 
and bring my Cora to my eyes. He will improve, 
if he will study. Thomas will come if you will 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

come. She is firm, though she is gentle. I cannot 
trust you, for you have deceived me. The soul of 
man is rational and immortal. Not vice, but 
virtue, gives happiness. The day of life, spent in 
honest and benevolent labor, comes to an evening 
calm and lovely. The weather was fine, and the 
roads were excellent. He lives and labors. He 
felt his strength diminish as he proceeded. Take 
heed lest you fall. I will trust in him, though he 
slay me. 

THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is an exclamatory word used to 
express some emotion of the mind ; as, Hail ! 
happy morn ! He is, alas! undone. Lift up your 
heads, 0, ye gates. 

The word interjection means something thrown 
between. 

The words generally used as interjections are, — Ah! 
Alas! Alack! Aha! Pie! Ha! Ho! Hallo! Hurra! 
| Huzza! Heyday! Lo ! O! Oh! Pshaw! Welladay ! 

Many other words are sometimes used as interjections ; 
cjas, Strang^! that he should be so foolish. Indeed! are you 
the man ? What ! will he not come? 

Questions.— What is an interjection ? Eepeat the sen- 
tence given as examples, and tell which words are inter- 
jections, and why. 

What words are commonly used as interjections? 
Are other words sometimes used ? Give the examples. 

4 



38 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
Huzza ! He comes. 
Huzza is an interjection, because- it is a word used to 
express some emotion of the mind. 

Tell which words are interjections, and why, in the 
following sentences. 

Alas! my noble boy! that thou shouldst die. 
Strange ! that men will not hear wisdom. Oh ! 
fudge ! why did you say so. Pshaw ! it is all 
nonsense. Oh ? blissful days ! Ah me ! how soon 
ye pass ! 

Remarks. > 

1. Frequently two or more words are taken together to 
form one part of speech ; as in 

NOUNS. 

Mary Johnson goes to school. 

William Henry Harrison died. 

His Excellency the President has arrived. 

ADJECTIVES. 

A most benevolent man. 
A more excellent way. 

VERBS. 

He would go. 

He must have been betrayed. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 



ADVERBS, 



He walked step by step. 
The idler studies none at alL 
Is he angry ? Not at all. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

He went according to custom. 
It came from under the bridge. 
Hard by a cottage chimney smokes, 
From between two aged oaks. 

CONJUNCTIONS- 

John, as well as James, was there. 

Inasmuch as you have laboured hard, you deserve to 
succeed. 

In most cases, however, a single word forms a part of 
speech. 

2. The same word is not always the same part of 
speech, but varies in accordance with its signification 
and use ; as in the following examples. Get the bar, 
and bar the door. Here the first word bar is a noun, be- 
cause it is a name, and the second is a verb, because it 
signifies to do. 

That man that lives in the country told me that you had 
visited him. 

Here the first that is an adjective, because it limits the 
meaning of the noun man ; the second is a pronoun, be- 
cause it is a word used instead of a noun ; the third is a 
conjunction, because it connects elauses. 

The good are good. 
Here the first word good is a noun, because it is a name ; 



40 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

the second is an adjective, because it qualifies the meaning 
of the noun good. 

Hence, you must determine the part of speech to which 
any word belongs by its signification and use. 

Questions. — What is remark first ? Give examples of two 
or more words forming a noun. Of two words forming 
an adjective. Of two or more words forming a verb. Of 
two or more words forming an adverb. Of two words 
forming a preposition. Of two or more words forming a 
conjunction. 

"What is remark second ? Eepeat the first sentence given 
as an example. What part of speech is the first word bar? 
and why ? The second ? and why ? Eepeat the second 
sentence. What part of speech is tee first that? and why? 
The second? and why ? The third? and why ? Eepeat the 
third sentence. What part of speech is the first good? and 
why ? The second ? and why ? How, then, must you deter- 
mine to what part of speech any word belongs ? 



EXERCISE. 

Models for naming the parts of speech. 

Truth is not a stagnant pool, but a fountain. 

Truth.... is a noun, because it is a name. 

Is is a verb, because it signifies to be. 

Not is an adverb, because it is a word used to modify 

the sense of a verb. 

A is an adjective, because it is a word used to limit 

the meaning of a noun. 

Stagnant is an adjective, because it is a word used to 
qualify the meaning of a noun. 

Pool is a noun, because it is a name. 

But is a conjunction, because it is a word used to con- 
nect clauses. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 41 

A is an adjective, because it is a word used to limit 

the meaning of a noun. 
Fountain is a noun, because it is a name. 

Hallo I come here to me. 

Hallo is an interjection, because it is a word used to ex- 
press some emotion of the mind. 

Come is a verb, because it signifies to do. 

Here is an adverb, because it is a word used to modify the 
sense of a verb. 

To is a preposition, because it is a word used to show 
the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word. 

Me is a pronoun, because it is a word used instead of a 
noun. 

Describe the words in the following sentences in ac- 
cordance with the foregoing models. 

Negligent servants drive horses carelessly. Time 
flies swiftly. Evil communications corrupt good 
manners. Time and tide wait for no man. The 
evil bow before the good. Say ye to the righteous, 
it shall be well with him. Profane swearing is 
abominable. Obscene language is disgusting. 
Avoid all vice, and aim at usefulness. Never be 
ashamed of honest labor. Socrates and Plato 
were Grecian philosophers. Good and bad men 
are found in all countries. Consider, man! 
thou art but dust. Measure your life by acts of 
goodness, not by years. Intrinsic worth, and not 
riches, ought to procure esteem. Who can look 
only at the muscles of the hand, and doubt that 
man was made to work ? 

4* 



42 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Turn, gentle hermit of the dale, 

And guide my lonely way 
To where yon taper cheers the vale 

With "hospitable ray. 

Sleep seldom visits sorrow, A truly good man 
worships God. Here will I rest. Where are you 
going? Alas ! how rapidly time passes away! Bravo! 
renew your efforts. He will not abandon the at- 
tempt, though he has been deceived. The time 
has passed, and you did not improve it. The earth 
is dark, but the heavens are bright. Hail, Colum- 
bia, happy land! True happiness is an enemy to 
pomp and noise. Julius Caesar defeated Pompey, 
and Augustus Caesar defeated Anthony. Wisdom 
and virtue ennoble us. Vice and folly degrade us. 

Profanity is a sure mark of an irreligious mind. 
If we have not always time to read, we have 
always time to reflect. Pride goeth before destruc- 
tion, and a haughty spirit before a fall. A great 
soul is known by its enlarged, strong, and tender 
sympathies. True courage is the exercise, result, 
and expression of the highest attributes of our 
nature. Industry, honesty, and temperance are 
essential to happiness. 

The Assyrian came down like* a wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold, 
And the sheen of their spears was like* stars on the sea 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee. 

* A preposition. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

ETYMOLOGY. 

DIVISION II. 

Of the parts of speech, their classifications y modifica- 
tions, and relations. 

Classification is the division into classes or sorts. 
Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and 
conjunctions are classified. 

Prepositions and interjections are not classified. 

Modification is a change in the form or meaning 
of a word. 

The modifications of the parts of speech are also 
called properties and accidents. 

When a word changes its form to express dif- 
ferent properties, it is said to be inflected. 

Nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs 
are inflected. 

Prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections are 
not inflected. 

The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called 
declension; that of adjectives and adverbs, com- 
parison ; and that of verbs, conjugation'. 

Relation is the reference which one word has to 
another in sense. 

Questions. — Of what does this chapter treat ? What are 
the parts of speech ? How many ? and what are they called ? 
What is classification ? Which parts of speech are classi- 



44 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

fied? Which are not classified? What is modification? 
What other names are given to the modifications of the 
parts of speech? When is a word said to be inflected? 
Which parts of speech are inflected ? Which parts of speech 
are not inflected ? What is the inflection of nouns and 
pronouns called ? The inflection of adjectives and adverbs ? 
The inflection of verbs ? What is relation ? 

In the sentence John saw a white horse, to what does John 
relate ? To what does white relate ? 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
Good children obey their parents cheerfully. 
Good relates to children, because the meaning is good 

children. 
Children.. relates to obey, because the meaning is children 

obey. 
Obey* relates to children, because the meaning is child- 
ren obey ; it also relates to parents, because the 

meaning is obey parents. 
Their relates to parents, because the meaning is their 

parents. 
Parents... relates to obey, because the meaning is obey 

parents. 
Cheerfully relates to obey, because the meaning is obey 

cheerfully. 

Tell the relation of each of the words in the follow- 
ing sentences. 

The boy studies diligently. Time flies swiftly. 
Wise kings rule nations prudently. Coming 
events cast their shadows before. John loves 
study. A kind look gladdens the heavy heart. 

* Obey relates to children as its subject, and to parents as its object. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

King Solomon was a wise man. 1 The eagles 
build their nests in the inaccessible rocks. Stu- 
dious boys learn many long lessons. Grass is green. 2 
Snow is white. Gold is heavy. The cars run 
rapidly. Queen Victoria governs England. A 
good book is a choice treasure. 3 A soft answer 
turns away wrath. 

1 Man relates to Solomon, because the meaning is the man Solomon. 

2 Green relates to grass, because the meaning is green grass. 

8 Treasure relates to book, because the meaning is book is a treasure. 

KOUNS. 

A w)un is the name of an object ; as, John, tree, 
truth. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Nouns are divided into two general classes, called 
common and proper. 

A common noun is a general name, or the name 
of a sort or species; as, man, town, river. 

A proper noun is a particular name, or the name 
of an individual ; as, Charles, Pittsburgh, Amazon. 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
John is a scholar. 
John. ..is a noun, it is a name; proper, it is a particular 

name. 
Scholar is a noun ; it is a name; common, it is a general 
name. 



46 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Describe the nouns in the following sentences. 

Washington is called the father of his country. 
The Amazon is the longest river in the world. 
Children, obey your parents. James and John 
study Geography, Grammar, and Arithmetic. 
Alexander lives in Boston. The earth is the 
Lord's. Harrisburg is the capital of Pennsyl- 
vania. The surface of the earth is diversified by 
hills, vales, and plains. Walking and riding are 
pleasant exercises. 

Common nouns include three classes, called col- 
lective, verbal, and abstract. 

A collective noun is the name of a collection of 
objects ; as, assembly, army, fbck. 

A verbal noun is one which signifies action or 
being, and has the form of a participle or infini- 
tive ; as, The singing was good. Its being I made 
no difference. To lie is base. 

An abstract nown is the name of a quality apart 
from the object to which it belongs ; as, Goodness 
should be preferred to wisdom. He was remarkable 
for docility and kindness. 

Remark. — We say, A good man; but if we wish to speak 
of the quality good, without reference to the man or any 
thing else, we say goodness: goodness, therefore, is an 
abstract noun. 

Questions. — What is a noun ? How many general classes 
of nouns ? What is a common noun ? Give examples. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

What is a proper noun? Give examples. What should 
the first letter of a proper noun be ? What three particular 
classes of nouns ? What is a collective noun ? Give ex- 
amples. A verbal noun? Give examples. An abstract 
noun ? Give examples. To which of the general classes 
do these belong ? 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN. 

Nouns have modifications of gender, person, 
number, and case. 

GEOTDER. 

Gender is a modification to distinguish objects 
with regard to sex. 

There avefour genders ; the masculine, the femi- 
nine, the common, and the neuter. 

Nouns which denote males are of the masculine 
gender; as, boy, brother, Jwro. 

Nouns which denote females are of the feminine 
gender ; as, girl, sister, heroine. 

Nouns which denote either or both sexes are of 
the common gender; as, person, cousin, children, 
friends. 

Nouns which denote things without sex are of the 
neuter gender ; as, tree, river, goodness, faith. 

KEMARKS. 

1. Let the pupil observe that gender is a property of the 
word, and sex a property of the object. Every object is either 
male, female, or without sex. Every name of an object 
is either of the masculine, feminine, common, or neuter 
gender. 



48 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



2. When we speak of the human species without regard 
to sex, we use the masculine gender; as, Man is mortal. 
Every person should do his duty. 

3. By a figure of speech, sex is sometimes attributed to 
inanimate objects; as, The sun pursues his course. The 
ship spreads her sails. Then Fancy her magical pinions 
spread wide. 

SEX. 

There are three methods of distinguishing the sex 
of objects. 

1. By the use of different words ; as — 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Bachelor, 


maid, 




Husband, 


wife, 


Beau, 


belle, 




King, 


queen, 


Boy, 


girl, 




Lad, 


lass, 


Brother, 


sister, 




Landlord, 


landlady, 


Buck, 


doe, 




Lord, 


lady, 


Drake, 


duck, 




Master, 


mistress, 


Earl, 


countess, 


Nephew, 


niece, 


Friar or monk, nun, 




Son, 


daughter, 


Gander, 


goose, 




Uncle, 


aunt, 


Gentleman 


, lady, 




Wizard, 


witch. 


2. By a different termination ; as— 


* 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. Feminine. 


Abbot, 


abbess, 


Governor, governess, 


Actor, 


actress, 


Heir, 


heiress 


h 


Author, 


authoress, 


Hero, 


heroine, 


Baron, 


baroness, 


Jew, 


Jewess 


, 


Bridegroom, 


bride, 


Landgrave, landgravine, 


Count, 


countess, 


Lion, 


lioness 


> 


Czar, 


czarina, 


Prince 


, princess, 


Duke, 


duchess, 


Sultan 


, sultaness or sultana, 


Emperor, 


empress, 


Testator, testatrix, 


Executor, 


executrix, 


Widower, widow 


. • 



BUETT^S EFGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

3. By prefixing another word ; as — 

Masculine. Feminine. 

Man-servant, maid-servant, 

He-goat, she-goat, 

Male-child, female-child, 

Male-descendants, female-descendants. 

EXERCISE. 

Model 
Soy is a noun of the maseuline gender, because it denotes 
a male. 

Tell the gender of the following twutis. 

Man, king, queen, sister, friends, people, person, 
child, house, book, ability, comfort, condition, cap- 
tain, goddess, tree, mountain, town, cow, bird, 
hostess, hunter, husband, peer, widow, grandfather, 
letter, philosopher, priest, patron, poetess, gentle- 
man, parents, cousin, niece, kindred, servants, com- 
panion, dove, wolf, lawyer. 

Questions. — -What are the modifications of nouns ? "What 
is gender ? How many genders, and what are they called? 
"What nouns are of the masculine gender ? Give examples. 
What nouns are of the feminine gender ? Give examples. 
What nouns are of the common gender? Give examples. 
What nouns are of the neuter gender? Give examples. 
What should the pupil observe concerning gender and sex? 
WTiat is said of every object ? Of every name of an object ? 
When we speak of the human species without regard to 
sex, what gender is used? Give examples. Is sex ever 
attributed to inanimate objects ? By what ? Give ex- 
amples. How many ways of distinguishing the sex of an 
object ? What is the first ? Give examples. The second? 
Give examples. The third? Give examples. 

5 



50 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

PERSON". 

Person is a modification of the noun to show its 
relation to the speaker. 

Remark. — The noun represents the speaker, or the object 
addressed by the speaker, or the object spoken of by the 
speaker, and, hence, the relation to the speaker. 

Nouns have three persons : the first, second, and 
third. 

The first person denotes the speaker; as, I, Paul, 
beseech you. 

The second person denotes the object addressed ; 
as, Listen, Earth ! 

The third person denotes the object spoken of; 
as, The earth smiles with plenty for man. 

Questions. — "What is person? How many persons have 
nouns? What are they called? What nouns are of the 
first person ? The second ? The third ? 

NUMBER. 

Number is a modification of the noun to distin- 
guish unity and plurality; as, John has a hook, and 
Mary has three books. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the 
plural. 

The singular number expresses but one ; as, book, 
man, ox. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 51 

The plural number expresses more than one ; as, 
boohs, men, oxen, 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

The plural of nouns is regularly formed by 
annexing s or es to the singular; as, book, boohs; 
box, boxes. 

REGULAR PLURALS. 

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s take 
s only; as, boy, boys; pen, pens; field, fields; 
Mussulman, Mussulmans. 

2. Nouns whose singular ends with the sound 
of s or ch take es ; as, mass, masses ; fox, foxes; 
inch, inches ; church, churches. 

3. Some nouns ending in o take s ; as, folio, 
folios; grotto, grottos; memento, mementos ; others 
take es ; as, hero, heroes; negro, negroes; potato, 
potatoes. 

IRREGULAR PLURALS. 

1. Some nouns ending in / and fe drop this 
ending, and take ves; as, half, halves ; wife, wives; 
wolf, ivolves. 

2. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a consonant, 
drop y and take ies ; as, city, cities ; pony, ponies ; 
country, countries. 

3. Compounds generally change the basis or prin- 
cipal part; as, cupful, cupfuls ; bondman, bondmen; 



52 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

court-martial, courts-martial ; son-in-law, sons-in-law ; 
commander-in-chief, commanders-in-chief. 

4. When the title Miss or Mr. is prefixed, there 
appear to be two methods in use ; as, The Misses 
Smith, or the Miss Smiths ; The Messrs. Johnson, 
or the Mr. Johnsons. 

The names of married women are made plural, 
and not the title ; as, The Mrs. Johnsons, the Mrs. 
Smitlis. 

5. Some nouns, from the nature of the things 
they represent, are used only in the singular ; as, 
gold, pride, news, rum, goodness, flour, milk, measles, 
molasses, &c. 

Others are used only in the plural ; as, annals, 
aslies, bitters, clothes, goods, oats, morals, scissors, 
tongs, &c. 

Others have the same form in both numbers ; as, 
deer, slieep, swine, sail (a ship), species, series, appa- 
ratus, head (cattle). 

6. Letters, figures, and signs are made plural by 
annexing an apostrophe and s; as, Dot your $$ and 
cross your fs; His 3's and 5's were badly made. 
Your +'s exceed your — f s. 

7. The following nouns form their plurals very 
irregularly : child, children ; foot, feet ; goose, geese ; 
louse, lice ; mouse, mice ; man, men ; ox, oxen ; 
tooth, teeth; woman, women. 



BURTT S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



53 



Many nouns from foreign languages retain their 
original plurals ; as, 



Singular, 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Alumnus, 


alumni, 


Hypothesis, hypotheses, 


Amanuensis, 


amanuenses, 


Larva, 


larvae, 


Analysis, 


analyses, 


Miasma, 


miasmata, 


Antithesis, 


antitheses, 


Momentum, momenta, 


Axis, 


axes, 


Nebula, 


nebulae, 


Basis, 


bases, 


Oasis, 


oases, 


Beau, 


beaux, 


Parenthesis, parentheses, 


Crisis, 


crises, 


Phasis, 


phases, 


Criterion, 


criteria, 


Phenomenon, phenomena, 


Datum, 


data, 


Eadius, 


radii, 


Effluvium, 


effluvia, 


Scoria, 


scoriae, 


Ellipsis, 


ellipses, 


Speculum, 


specula, 


Emphasis, 


emphases, 


Stimulus, 


stimuli, 


Erratum, 


errata, . 


Stratum, 


strata, 


Focus, 


foci, 


Thesis, 


theses. 


Genus, 


genera, 






Some have 


i an English and a foreign plural; as, 


Singular. 


English Plural. 


Foreign Plural. 


Apex, 


apexes, 




apices, 


Appendix, 


appendixes, 


appendices, 


Automaton, 


automatons, 


automata, 


Bandit, 


bandits, 




banditti, 


Cherub, 


cherubs^ 




cherubim, 


Formula, 


formulas 


; > 


formulae, 


Fungus, 


funguses 


y 


fungi, 


Medium, 


mediums, 


media, 


Memorandum, memorandums, 


memoranda, 


Scholium, 


scholiums, 


scholia, 


Seraph, 


seraphs, 




seraphim, 


Stamen, 


stamens, 




stamina, 


Vortex, 


vortexes 

5* 


i 


vortices. 



54 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

A few nouns have two forms of the plural with 
different significations ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

( brothers, sons of the same family. 
r r ' \ brethren, members of the same society. 

• ( dies, stamps used for coining. 

Die, 1 a- v a * • 

} ( dice, cubes used for gaming. 

_ f geniuses, men of genius. 

Genius, < 6 .. 'i. A ~ . *"■'■- {. 

\ ( genu, a kind of imaginary beings. 

j indexes, tables of contents. 
? \ indices, signs in Algebra. 

J pennies, the coins. 
^ \ pence, the value. 

Questions. — What is number? How many numbers, and 
what are they called? What nouns are of the singular 
number? Give examples. What nouns are of the plural 
number? Give examples. How is the plural regularly 
formed? What nouns form their plurals by taking s to the 
singular ? By taking es ? What is said of nouns ending 
in o ? Eepeat some endings in o which take s. Some which 
take es. What are those plurals called which are not formed 
by annexing 5 or es to the singular? What is said of some 
nouns ending in/ or fe ? Give examples. Give examples 
of nouns ending in / or fe which form their plurals regu- 
larly. What nouns drop y and take ies f How do com- 
pounds form their plurals ? 

Give the plural of handful, father-in-law, outpouring, 
knight-errant, sister-in-law. Give the two methods of form- 
ing the plural of Miss Abel, Miss Anderson, Mr. Patterson, 
Mr. Alexander. Give the plural of Mrs. Thompson, Mrs. 
Osgood. Give examples of nouns which are used only in 
the singular. Nouns which are used only in the plural. 
Nouns which are alike in both numbers. How is the 
plural of letters, figures, and signs formed? What is said 
of many nouns from foreign languages ? 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

EXERCISE. 

Spell the plural of the following nouns. 

Alumnus, analysis, axis, basis, criterion, focus, 
genus, larva, oasis, phenomenon, radius, stimulus, 
stratum. 

Spell the English and the foreign plural of eajch of 
the following nouns. 

Apex, automaton, bandit, cherub, formula, fun- 
gus, medium, memorandum, stamen, vortex. 

Spell both plurals of each of the following nouns, 
and give tJie meaning. 

Brother, die, genius, index, penny. 

Spell the plural of each of the following nouns. 

Table, door, chair, house, face, place, box, wish, 
class, watch, bench, loss, lass, seraglio, cuckoo, 
cameo, volcano, calico, tomato, mulatto, motto, 
story, history, lady, fancy, study, cherry, fury, 
sty, day, play, chimney, ray, turkey, valley, calf, 
shelf, leaf, life, muff, staff, scarf, chief, child, mouse, 
tooth, deer, sheep, means, odds, news, Mussulman, 
mother-in-law, Miss Burns, Mrs. Black, Mr. Camp- 
bell, miasma, fungus. 

Spell the singular of data, foci, specula, strata, 
errata, phenomena, genii, stimuli, fungi, media, 
miasmata, bases, effluvia, radii, phases, nebulae. 



5© PR0&RESSIYE SERIES. 

EXERCISE. 

Name the nouns in the following sentences, and 
give the class and modifications of each, as far as 
learned. 

MOBEL. 

Napoleon Bonaparte was an emperor. 
Napoleon Bonaparte is a noun, it is a name ; proper, it i» 
a particular name ; of the masculine gender, it denotes a 
male; third person, it denotes the object spoken* of; sin- 
gular number, it expresses but one. 

Emperor is a noun, it is a name; common, it is a general 
name ; of the masculine gender, it denotes a male ; third 
person, it denotes the object spoken of; singular number, 
it expresses but one. 

EXAMPLES. 

The man and his horse are out in the rain. X, 
Alexander, Emperor of Russia, make this decree. 
I, John, said these things. Charles, bring me the 
book. Boys, study your lessons. Victoria is Queen 
of England. Romulus founded Rome. The phe- 
nomena of the heavens are wonderful. The rays 
came to a focus. John brought good news. Good- 
ness, Wisdom, and Justice are Divine attributes. 
The running of the brook and the skipping of the 
lambs were delightful. Reading and spelling are 
important exercises of the school-room. The but- 
terfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun. 
Hope, the balm of life, lightens every misfortune. 
False delicacy is affectation, not politeness. Honor, 
affluence, and pleasure seduce the heart. 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

CASE. 

Case* is a modification of the noun to distinguish 
its relation to other words. 
The principal relations are : — 

1. The subject relation to a verb ; as, John studies. 

2. The possessive relation to another noun; as, John's book. 

3. The objective relation to a verb or preposition; as, He 
saw John. He spoke to John. 

4. The dejining relation to a noun or pronoun; as, The 
Apostle John was loved. He, John, was there. 

5. The predicate relation, being used as the complement 
to the verb ; as, He was called John. 

6. The adverbial relation, when it expresses some adverb- 
ial circumstance; as, He went last week. 

7. Nouns are sometimes used independently, having no 
grammatical relation to other words ; as, John, study your 
lesson. Oh, foolish man I 

Nouns have four cases, the nominative, possessive, 
objective, and absolute. 

The nominative case is generally the subject of 
a finite verb. 

It represents its object as acting or being; as, 
John writes. John is a scholar. 

The possessive case denotes possession; as, John's 
book. The hoys class. 

The objective case is generally the object of a 
transitive verb or preposition; as, He saw John. 
He spoke to John. 

* The cases of nouns and pronouns cannot be fully understood without 
a knowledge of the modifications of the verb, and hence should be revised 
after the verb has been studied. 



58 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

The absolute case is independent of any govern- 
ing word. It is used 

1. By address; as, Friends, Romans, country- 
men, lend me your ears. 

2. By exclamation ; as, Oh! mighty Ccesar! 

3. Before a participle, and independently of 
other words ; as, The hour having arrived, we com- 
menced our journey. 

4. By ellipsis, in the titles of books, subjects, 
or chapters ; as, Webster's Dictionary. The Daily 
Dispatch. Section 4th. Or when the noun by ellip- 
sis is used in an adverbial sense ; as, He started last 
week. He lived two centuries before Christ. The 
street is sixty feet wide. 

The nominative, objective, and absolute cases of 
nouns are alike in form. 

The possessive case is formed from the nomina- 
tive by annexing an apostrophe and s, or an apos- 
trophe only, generally in accordance with the fol- 
lowing 

RULES. 

1. Nouns not ending in the sound of s or z take 
the apostrophe and s; as, man, man's; men, men's; 
John, Johns. 

2. Plural nouns ending in s take the apostrophe 
only; as, boy, boys; lady, ladies'. 

3. Singular nouns ending in the sound of s or z 
generally take the apostrophe and s; as, Collins s 
odes. Burns' s poems. James's writing. 



BURTT S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



59 



A few take the apostrophe only; as, Achillea 
shield. Conscience sake. 





DECLENSION". 






To decline a noun is to express 


its numbers and 


cases. 












Singular, 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


Lady, 


ladies, 


Man, 


men, 


Poss. 


Lady's, 


ladies', 


Man's, 


men's, 


Obj. 


Lady, 


ladies ; 


Man, 


men, 


Abs. 


Lady, 


ladies. 


Man, 


men. 



Questions. — "What is ease? What is the first relation 
mentioned ? Give an example. The second relation ? Give 
an example. The third? Give an example. The fourth? 
Give an example. The fifth ? Give an example. The 
sixth? Give an example. Are nouns ever used without 
a grammatical relation to. other words? Give examples. 
How many cases have nouns ? What are they ? What is 
the nominative case? How does it represent its object? 
Give examples. What is the possessive case? Give ex- 
amples. What is the objective case ? Give examples. 
What is the absolute case ? How is it used first ? Give 
examples. Secondly? Give examples. Thirdly? Give 
examples. Fourthly? Give examples. What cases of 
nouns are alike in form ? What is the first direction for 
forming the possessive ? The second ? The third ? 

Spell the possessive case of the following nouns. 

Teacher, Mary, wisdom, men, girl, girls, boy, 
boys, goodness, conscience, Burns, Wells, horse, 
horses, eagle, eagles, John, James, Thomas. 



60 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 

James brought John's book from school. 

The noun James is in the nominative case, because it is 
the subject of the verb brought. 

The noun John's is in the possessive case, because it de- 
notes possession. 

The noun book is in the objective case, because it is the 
object of the transitive verb brought. 

The noun school is in the objective case, because it is the 
object of the preposition from. 

Tell the case of each noun in the following senr 
fences. 

Mary sings. John's dog barks. The traveler 
killed the robber. Benjamin went to town. Fishes 
swim in the sea. Man's works decay. Julia's 
father bought the man's farm. Washington's 
genius triumphed. Anger rests in the bosom of 
wicked men. A good cause makes a strong arm. 

The nouns italicized in the following sentences are 
in the absolute case : let the pupil tell why. 

Charles, come to me. Oh ! foolish man. The 
general being slain, the army fled. Osgood's Speller. 
Chapter 1st. Lesson 4th. Act 1st. Scene 4th. 
He arrived last night. The lake is ten miles broad. 
John, James, and Harry, listen, all of you. Happy 
people! Wonderful man! The sun having risen, 
he pursued his journey. 



: 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 61 



EXERCISE. 

Models for parsing nouns. 
Julius prints children's primers. 

Julius is a noun, it is a name; proper, it is a particu- 
lar name ; of the masculine gender, it denotes a 
male; third person, it denotes the object spoken 
of; singular number, it expresses but one; and 
in the nominative case, being the subject of the 
verb prints, according to Eule I. : — The subject of 
a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 

Children' Vis a noun, it is a name; common, it is a general 
name; of the common gender, it denotes both 
sexes; third person, it denotes the object spoken 
of; plural number, it expresses more than one; 
and in the possessive case, it denotes possession, 
according to Eule III. : — A noun or pronoun de- 
noting possession is put in the possessive case. 

Primers. .As a noun, it is a name; common, it is a general 
name; of the neuter gender, it denotes things 
without sex; third person, it denotes the object 
spoken of; plural number, it expresses more than 
one; and in the objective case, being the object 
of the verb prints, according to Eule IX. : — 
The object of a transitive verb is put in the objective 
case. 

John, make haste to school. 

John. As a noun, it is a name; proper, it is a particular 
name; of the masculine gender, it denotes a male; 
second person, it denotes the object addressed; 
singular number, it expresses but one ; and in the 
absolute case by address, according to Eule IV. — 
A noun or pronoun not governed is put in the absolute 
case, j 

6 



62 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

School is a noun, it is a name; common, it is a general 
name; of the neuter gender, it denotes a thing 
without sex; third person, it denotes the object 
spoken of; singular number, it expresses but one; 
and in the objective case, being the object of the 
preposition to, according to Eule XVI. : — The object 
of a preposition is put in the objective case. 

Parse the nouns in the following sentences. 

Man labors. Men labor. Water flows. Waters 
flow. Eain descends. Rains descend. John walks. 
Ladies visit. Fires burn. Milton wrote. Time 
flies. Man's works decay. Men's labors cease. 
John's dog barks. The lady's bird sings. Solo- 
mon's wisdom was great. The elephant's tusk is 
white. Washington's plans prevailed. Sarah's 
sister purchased the lady's bonnet. Columbus dis- 
covered America. Farmers mow the grass. The 
multitude pursue pleasure. Charles has a horse. 
The man owns a farm. Newton studies law. 
Some boys love study. Most boys love play. Seek 
wisdom. Respect old age. Thomas went from the 
city to the country. Surely goodness and mercy 
shall follow me all the days of my life. Virtue 
produces happiness. Julia's father bought the 
man's farm. The road leads through Pennsylvania 
into Ohio. The farmer went out of the house 
across the field and into the barn. My son/ be wise 
to-day. Give ear, Earth. 1 Great man ! 2 the 
nations wondered much and praised. The night 3 
having passed, the sun arose. Shame 3 being lost, all 
virtue is lost. Ossian's poems. 4 Chapter 4 1st. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

Section 4 4th. .- Soul of the just, companion of the 
dead, where is thy home, and whither art thou 
fled? Allegheny City, May 16th, 1858. 

1 In the absolute case by address. 

2 In the absolute case by exclamation. 

3 In the absolute case before a participle. 

4 In the absolute case by ellipsis. 



PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, 
George has a book, and he reads it. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Pronouns are of four classes : Personal, Relative, 
\Interrogative, and Definitive. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

A personal pronoun is one that has a form to 
denote its person. 

They are, / of the first person, 

Thou or You of the second person, 

He, She, and It of the third person. 

Their plurals are, We, Ye or You, and They. 

The simple personal pronouns are rendered compound by 
annexing self or selves. 

The compound personal pronouns are, myself, thyself, your- 
self, himself, herself, and itself. 

Their plurals are ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. 

Questions. — What is a pronoun ? Give the classification 
of pronouns. What is a personal pronoun ? Of what per- 



64 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

son is I? You ? They ? Name the personal pronouns. 
Give their plurals. How are the simple personals rendered 
compound ? Eepeat the compound personals. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A relative pronoun is one which relates to an an- 
tecedent and unites clauses ; as, The man is happy 
who is virtuous. 

The relatives are, who, which, what, that, and as. 

That is a relative when it is used in the sense of 
ivho or which; as, He that (who) came. The tree 
that (which) fell. 

As is a relative when it follows such, many, or 
same ; as, They are such as labor. Take as many 
as you want. I read the same as you ; i.e. I read 
the same which you read. 

Than has sometimes the construction of a relative, when 
it follows more; as, He has more than you want. 

Questions. — What is a relative pronoun ? In the example 
given, which word is a relative ? What is its antecedent? 
What clauses does it unite ? Name the relatives. When 
is that a relative ? When is as a relative ? 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
The bird which sang so sweetly has flown. 
Which is a relative pronoun : it relates to bird for its 
antecedent, and unites the clauses The bird has 
flown and which sang so sweetly. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

Describe the relatives in the following sentences. 

This is the tree which produces no fruit. The 
boy who studies will improve. The child that is 
obedient will prosper. The grass that was cut 
yesterday is withered. . He that governs his pas- 
sions is wise. The house in which we lived has 
been sold. Take such as you want. The apples 
which you gave me are sour. The gentleman 
whom we met was a teacher. The boat which 
we saw has sailed. He has the same studies as 
you. 

DOUBLE RELATIVES. 

A double relative is one which is equivalent to 
two words, the antecedent and the relative; as, I 
heard what he said ; i.e. I heard the thing which he 
said. Whoever sins will suffer ; i.e. The person who 
sins will suffer. 

The double relatives are, whoever, whosoever, 
whomsoever, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever, 
and whatsoever. 

Questions. — "What is- a double relative ? Which word is a 
double relative in the first example, and to what is it 
equivalent ? In the second example, which word is a double 
relative, and to what is it equivalent ? Name the double 
relatives. 

EXEECISE. 

In the following sentences, tell which words are 
double relatives, and give the equivalent for each. 
I know what he did. He studies what is useful. 



66 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Whosoever believeth in me shall be saved. What- 
soever thy hand findeth to do, do with thy might. 
Take whatever he gives you. Whatsoever he 
gays, observe. 

INTERKOGATIVE PHONOUNS. 

An interrogative pronoun is one used in asking a 
question; as, IPTbcame? TTAaiisit? 

The interrogatives are, who, which, and what: 
they have the same form as the relatives. 

Questions. — What is an interrogative pronoun ? Name 
the interrogatives. What is said of their form? Give 
three sentences in which who shall be an interrogative. 
Three, in which which shall be an interrogative. Three, in 
which what shall be an interrogative. 

DEFINITIVE PRONOUN. 

A definitive pronoun is one which limits a noun un- 
derstood ; as, Some men are wise, others are foolish. 

The definitives are, each, every, either, neither, this, that, 
these, those, former, latter, first, last, some, other, any, one, all, 
such, both, same, another, none, few, and many. 

REMARK. 

The definitive pronoun may be considered to be a defini- 
tive adjective limiting a substantive understood. 

Questions. — What is a definitive pronoun? Eepeat the 
definitives. 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
Each should endeavor to please the other. 
Each is a definitive pronoun, being equivalent to each 
person : therefore its substantive is person understood. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 

Other is a definitive pronoun, being equivalent to other 
person : therefore its substantive is person understood. 

Describe the definitives 'pronouns in the following 
sentences. 

He took one book r and I took the other. This 
rule is better than that. These words are easier 
than those. That book is yours, this is mine. 
Few persons are without faults ; but some are better 
than others. This is the man. These are pros- 
perous times. All or any of you may come. 
Many are called, but few chosen. Neither of the 
verses pleases me, for both are defective. Of the 
two propositions, the former is correct, the latter is 
defective. Here are the books; and you may take 
any or all of them. 

REMARKS. 

A pronoun may represent a noun, phrase, or clause. 

That which the pronoun stands for, or represents, is 
called its substantive. 

The substantive of the personal pronoun, and also of the 
relative, usually precedes it, and is called its antecedent. 

The substantive of the interrogative pronoun is the 
answer to the question, and is called its subsequent. 

The substantive of the definitive pronoun is the noun un- 
derstood which it limits. 

A substantive is a noun or pronoun, or a phrase or clause 
having the construction of a noun or pronoun. 

Questions on ifemarfe.— What may a pronoun represent? 
What is the word, phrase, or clause, which the pronoun 
represents, called ? What is said of the substantive of the 
personal and relative pronoun ? Of the substantive of the 
interrogative pronoun ? Of the substantive of the defini- 
tive pronoun ? What is a substantive? 



68 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



MODIFICATIONS OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have modifications of gender, person, 
number, and case. y 

DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. I, Nom. we, 

Poss. my or mine, Poss. our or ours, 

Obj. me, Obj. us, 

Abs. I or me. Abs. we. 



SECOND PERSON (GRAVE STYLE). 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. thou, Nom. ye, 

Poss. thy or thine, Poss. your or yours, 

Obj. thee, Obj. you, 

Abs. thou. Abs. ye. 

SECOND PERSON (COMMON STYLE). 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. you, Nom. you, 

Poss. your or yours, Poss. your or yours, 

Obj. you, 06/. you, 

.A6s. you. Abs. you. 

THIRD PERSON (MASCULINE GENDER). 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. he, Nom. they, 

Poss. his, Poss. their or theirs, 

06;. him, Obj. them, 

A6s. he. Abs. they. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 69 

THIRD PERSON (FEMININE GENDER). 



Singular, 






Plural. 


Nom. she, 




Nom. 


they, 


Poss. her or hers, 




Poss. 


their or theirs, 


Obj. her, 




Obj. 


them, 


Abs. she. 




Abs. 


they. 


THIRD PERSON 


(NEUTER GENDER; . 


Singular. 






Plural. 


Nom. it, 




Nom. 


they, 


Poss. its, 




Poss. 


theirs, 


Obj. it, 




Obj. 


them, 


Abs. it. 




Abs. 


they. 




REMARKS. 





1. Only the third person singular of the personal pro- 
noun has a form to denote its gender. 

2. The pronoun it, though generally neuter, is sometimes 
of the other genders ; as, It was John. It was a woman. 
I saw the child when it was sick. 

3. The first form of the possessive case, my, thy, her, our, 
your, and their, is used when the noun denoting the object 
possessed is expressed; as, my book*; your book, &c. 

The second form, mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and theirs, 
jis used when the noun denoting the object possessed is 
understood; as, The book is mine; i.e. The book is my book. 
The book is yours; i.e. The book is your book. 

DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

Who, whose, whom. 

Which, whose, which. 

Wh osoever, whosesoever, whomsoever. 

The other relatives are indeclinable. 



70 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



The definitives, one, other, and another, are de- 
clined as follows : — 

Sing. Plu. Sing, Plu. Sing. 

Norn. One, ones, other, others, another, 
Poss. One's, ones', other's, others', another's, 
Obj. One, ones. other, others. another. 

Questions. — What are the modifications of pronouns? 
Decline the first person in both numbers. The second. 
The third in each of the genders. Which of the personal 
pronouns has a form to denote gender? What is said of 
the gender of it ? When is the first form of the possessive 
case used? When is the second form used? Decline who, 
which, whosoever, one, other, another. 



EXERCISE. 

Models for parsing pronouns. 
John, I saw the man who talked with you. 

J.. ...is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun; per- 
sonal, it has a form to denote its person; of the first 
person and singular number, to agree with its ante- 
cedent understood, according to Kule VI. : — Pronouns 
agree with their substantives in gender, person, and 
number. lis in the nominative case, being the sub- 
ject of the verb saw, according to Eule I. : — The 
subject of a finite verb is put in the nominative case. 
(Decline I.) 

Who is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun; rela- 
tive, it relates to an antecedent and unites clauses ; 
of the masculine gender, third person, and singular 
number, to agree with its antecedent man, according 
to Eule VI. (Repeat the rule.) Who is in the nomi- 
native case, being the subject of the verb talked, 
according to Eule I. (Repeat the rule.) (Decline 
who.) 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



71 



You is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun ; per- 
sonal, it has a form to denote its person; of the 
masculine gender, second person, and singular num- 
ber, to agree with its antecedent John, according to 
Eule YI. (Repeat the rule.) You is in the objective 
case, being the object of the preposition with, ac- 
cording to Eule IX. : — The object of a preposition is 
put in the objective case. (Decline you.) 

Whoever sins will suffer. 
Whoever is a pronoun, it is a word used instead of a noun; 
double relative, it is equivalent to the person who ; of 
the common gender, third person, and singular num- 
ber, to agree with the person who for which it stands, 
according to Eule YI * Whoever supplies two cases, 
being the subjeetof the verb sins a wd will suffer, accord- 
ing to Eule YII. : — Double relatives supply two cases. 

Wlio founded Eome ? Eomulus. 

Who is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun; inter- 
rogative, it is used in asking a question; of the 
masculine gender, third person, and singular number, 
to agree with its subsequent Romulus, according to 
Eule VI. Who is in the nominative case, being the 
subject of the verb founded, according to Eule L 
(Decline who.) 

This is John's book. 
This is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun ; defini- 
tive, it limits a noun understood; of the neuter 
gender, third person, and singular number, to agree 
with the noun book understood, for which it stands, 
according to Eule YI. This is in the nominative 
case, being the subject of the verb is, according to 
Eule I. 

* Let the pupil repeat each rule referred to. 



72 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in the following 
sentences. 

I, James, saw my uncle at his house. We be- 
sought our friends to give their advice. Thy 
money perish with thee. She uttereth her voice 
in council. It shall be well with them who fear 
the Lord. Joseph knew his brethren, but they 
knew not him. His lessons are easier than mine. 
This book is mine; that is yours. The diligent 
scholar makes easy work of his lessons. The lady 
whose house we occupy lives in the city. Lessons 
which require much thought develop the mind. 
The man that is diligent in business will be suc- 
cessful. Do you know the gentleman whose kind- 
ness we experienced ? The tree which produces no 
fruit shall be cut down. 

Who invented the telescope? Galileo. Whom 
do you want? James. Which road shall we 
take ? The east road. What did you say ? 
Nothing. Who w r ent with you ? To what are you 
inclined? In whose house do you live? You 
may say what you please. He will do what is 
right. The Lord chasteneth whomsoever he 
loveth. Take whatever is offered. Whoever is 
virtuous is happy. Whosoever is not with me is 
against me. Few persons are without faults, but 
some are better than others. He took one road, 
and I took the other. Many are called, but few 
are chosen. Take such as you like. He has the 
same studies as you. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 73 



ADJECTIVES. 

An adjective is a word used to qualify or limit 
the meaning of a noun or pronoun; as, A useful 
book. This boy is industrious. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Adjectives are divided into two general classes, 
descriptive and definitive. 

A descriptive adjective is one which expresses 
| quajity, kind, or condition; as, A tall tree. An 
\ oak tree. A dead tree. 

A definitive adjective is one which defines or 
! limits ; as, This book. One book. Many books.. 

The definitives are — 

One, two, first, second, third, a, an, the, each, every, 
either, neither, this, that, these, those, former, latter, first, 
! last, some, other, any, one, all, such, both, same, another, 
no, many, few, much, more, most, which, and what. 

Questions. — What is an adjective? How many are the 
J general classes, and what are they called ? What is a de- 
j scriptive adjective ? What is a definitive adjective 1 Give 
, the list of definitives. Are these words sometimes defini- 
tive pronouns ? In the sentence " This book is new/ 7 
what part of speech is the word this? In the sentence 
" This is the best," what part of speech is the word this? 



Descriptive adjectives include those called proper 
and participial. 

A proper adjective is a descriptive adjective 

7 



74 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

formed from a proper noun ; as, A Roman soldier. 
The French people. 

A participial adjective is a descriptive adjective 
which has the form of a participle ; as, A running 
stream. A broken arm. 

Definitive adjectives include those called inter- 
rogates, numerals, and articles. 

Interrogatives are those used in asking questions; 
as. Which road did he take ? What places did you 
visit ? 

Numerals are such as are used to express num- 
bers; as, one, ten, twelfth. 

Numerals are principally of two kinds, called 
cardinal and ordinal. 

The cardinals are those used in counting; as, 
one, two, three, &c. 

The ordinals are those used to express order; 
as, first, second, third, &c. 

The articles are, a, an, and the. 

The is called the definite article, because it is 
generally used when we refer to some particular 
object or class of objects. 

A or an is called the indefinite article, because it 
is used when we refer to some one of a class, but 
to no particular one. 






BURT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 

Each, every, either, and neither, are called dis- 
tributives, because they represent the objects that 
make up a number as taken separately. 

This, that, these, those, former, latter, first, and 
last, are called demonstratives, because they pre- 
cisely point out the object to which they relate. 

Questions. — What is a proper adjective? Give three sen- 
tences each containing a proper adjective. What is a par- 
ticipial adjective? Give three sentences each containing a 
participial adjective. To what general class do proper and 
participial adjectives belong ? 

What is an interrogative adjective ? What is a numeral 
adjective? How are numeral adjectives divided? What 
is a cardinal numeral? Eepeat the first ten cardinals. 
What is an ordinal numeral ? Eepeat the first ten ordinals. 
What words are called articles? Which is called the 
definite article ? Why is it so called ? Which is called the 
indefinite article? Why is it so called? To what general 
class of adjectives do interrogatives, numerals, and articles 
belong? What adjectives are called distributives? Why 
are they so called ? What adjectives are called demonstra- 
tives ? Why are they so called ? 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Descriptive adjectives have modifications of com- 
parison. 

Definitive adjectives have no modifications. 

Comparison is a modification of the adjective to 
express its sense in different degrees; as, wise, 
wiser, wisest 



76 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

There are three degrees of comparison, the posi- 
tive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree is expressed by the adjective 
in its simple form ; as, A good man. He was wise. 

The comparative degree is the higher or lower of 
two contrasted; as, A better man. He was less wise. 

The superlative degree is the highest or lowest of 
all contrasted; as, The best man. He was least 
wise. 

The comparative degree is formed from the posi- 
tive by adding er, or by prefixing more or less ; as, 
great, greater ; bountiful, more bountiful; cheerful, 
less cheerful. 

The superlative degree is formed from the posi- 
tive by adding est, or by prefixing most or least; 
as, great, greatest ; bountiful, most bountiful; cheer- 
ful, least cheerful. 

COMPARISON BY INCREASING THE POSITIVE. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 



"Warm, 


warmer, 


warmest. 


Great, 

Frugal, 

Benevolent, 


greater, 
more frugal, 
more benevolent, 


greatest, 
most frugal, 
most benevolent. 


COMPARISON BY DECREASING 


THE POSITIVE. 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Wise, 


less wise, 


least wise. 


Kind, 


less kind, 


least kind. 


Mindful, 


less mindful, 


least mindful. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



77 



A few adjectives are irregular in their comparison. 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Bad, ill, or evil, 


worse, 


worst. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Late, 


later or latter, 


latest or last. 


Near, 


nearer, 


nearest or next. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Forth, 


further, 


furthest. 


Fore, 


former, 


foremost or first 


Old, 


older or elder, 


oldest or eldest. 



Questions. — What modifications have adjectives? "What 
kind of adjectives is compared? Are definitive adjectives 
compared ? What is comparison ? How many are the 
degrees of comparison ? What are they called ? How is 
the positive degree expressed ? What is the comparative 
degree ? What is the superlative degree? How is the com- 
parative degree formed? How is the superlative degree 
formed ? 

EXERCISE. 
Compare the following adjectives. 
Great, large, small, rough, smooth, happy, noble, 
worthless, ambitious, benevolent, old, young, good, 
bad, much, late, far, skillful, excellent. 



REMARKS. 

1. Words which are generally used as nouns sometimes 
become adjectives; as, A gold ring. A silver cup. Sea 
water. These cannot with propriety be compared. 

2. Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, 
preferable, previous, &c, though they involve the idea of 
comparison, are nevertheless considered to be in the posi- 

7* 



78 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

tive degree, since they have no more simple form in the 
language. 

For a like reason, the adjectives perfect, supreme, chief, 
universal, omnipotent, eternal, &c., which have a superlative 
signification, are in the positive degree. 

3. The words more, most, less, and least, when used to 
denote degrees of comparison, are considered as part of the 
adjective; as, more wise is an adjective, and not an adverb 
and an adjective. 

Questions on Remarks. — What words sometimes become 
adjectives ? Give examples. What is said of such adjec- 
tives as superior, inferior, &c. ? In what degree is perfect, 
supreme, omnipotent, &c. ? What is said of the words 
more, most, &c. when used in comparing adjectives ? 

EXERCISE. 

Models for parsing the adjective. 
This book is new. 
This is an adjective, a word used to limit the meaning 

of a noun; definitive, it defines or limits, and relates 

to the noun book, according to Eule V. : — Adjectives 

limit substantives. 
New is an adjective, a word used to qualify the meaning 

of a noun ; descriptive, it expresses quality or kind; 

positive, new, comparative, newer, superlative, newest; 

it is in the positive degree, and relates to the noun 

book, according to Eule V. (Repeat the rule.) 

Truth is more wonderful than fiction. 

More wonderful is an adjective, a word used to qualify the 
meaning of a noun; descriptive, it expresses quality; 
positive, wonderful, comparative, more wonderful, super- 
lative, most wonderful ; it is in the comparative degree, 
and relates to the noun truth, according to Eule V. 



BURT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79 

He is young. 
Young is an adjective, a word used to qualify the mean- 
ing of a pronoun ; descriptive, it expresses quality; 
positive, young, comparative, younger, superlative, 
youngest; it is in the positive degree, and relates 
to the pronoun he, according to Eule V. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

First parse the adjectives, and then the nouns, pro- 
nouns, and adjectives. 

A wise son maketh a glad father. Large, deep 
rivers float long, heavy rafts. A good man is 
happy. He lives on the highest hill. That benevo- 
lent lady has the liveliest disposition and the most 
pleasant temper. John is a better reader than 
James. 1 Wisdom is better than rubies. 2 He has 
superior talents. The best and wisest men some- 
times err. A dismal, dense, and portentous cloud 
| overhung the city. These rivers are deep and 
rapid. Deep is the sleep of the dead, low is their 
pillow of dust. Bent is his head with age, red is 
his tearful eye. Tall art thou on the hills, fair 
among the sons of the vale. 

The way was long, the wind was cold; 
The minstrel was infirm and old ; 
His withered cheek and tresses gray 
Seemed to have known a better day. 

2 James is nominative to is understood. 
1 Rubies is nominative to are understood. 



80 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



VERBS. 

A verb is a word which signifies to be, or to do; 
as, He was. They run. 

CLASSIFICATION. 
VERBS TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE. 

Verbs with reference to the object are divided 
into two kinds, transitive and intransitive. 

When the action expressed by a verb terminates 
on a substantive, the substantive is called the object 
of the verb. 

A transitive verb is one that has an object ; as, 
John studies grammar. James has a horse. 

An intransitive verb is one that has no object; as, 
He is good. John walks. 

REMARKS. 

1. The object, though it is generally placed after the 
transitive verb, is sometimes before it. 

1st. In interrogative sentences; as, Whom did you see? 
Which will you take ? What study do you prefer ? 

2d. In a relative clause, when the relative is the object; 
as, This is the study which I love best. I saw the man 
whom you described. 

3d. By transposition ; as, Her I love dearly, but him I 
despise ; i.e. I love her dearly, but I despise him. 

2. The object of a verb may be a word, phrase, or clause; 
as, The boys read Virgil. We love to study. I know why 
you lent the umbrella. 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 

3. Most verbs may be used in a transitive or intransitive 



■sense; as 



Transitive* Intransitive. 

He studies grammar, He studies carefully. 

The boy flies his kite, The birdflks swiftly. 

They run a train of cars^ The oars run rapidly. 

She sung a new song, She sung well. 

He improves his time, He improves rapidly. 

Questions.— What is a v^rb? How are verbs classified 
with reference to the object ? What is meant by the object 
of a vorfo ? What is a transitive verb ? An intransitive 
verb? Where is the object generally placed with reference 
to the verb ? Is it always placed after the verb ? Give 
the first case in which it is placed before. The second. 
The third. Is the object of a verb always a word ? What 
may it be? Give an example of a word-object. A phrase- 
object. A clause-object. How may most verbs be used? 
<3ive examples. 

EXERCISE. 

Model 
John loves study ; but James is idle. 
Loves is a transitive verb? study is its object. 
Is is an intransitive verb : it has no object. 

Describe the verhs in the following sentences. 

He studies law. They ran races. He sells 
books. The boys will learn their lessons. Jane 
has a slate. Contentment makes men happy. 
The man owns a farm. John saw his sister in 
danger, and rescued her. Charles took my book 
and left yours. 

He wished to live. They tried to run. They 
professed to find gold. She commenced to work. 
He intended to go. Boys love to play. 



1 



82 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

You say that he is honest. I know who did it. 
I heard who was there. He said that it was all 
right. I knew that it was he. He said that he 
could not go. 

The sun shines. The moon is full. Time is 
short. Your brother improves. Joseph has come. 
Jane spoils her beauty. The bird spreads its wings. 
Govern your passions, and you will escape many 
difficulties. What did you eat? Whom did you 
see ? Which book did you take ? Where will he 
go, and when will he return ? 

Therefore press on, and reach the goal, 
And gain the prize, and wear the crown. 

VERBS, REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 

Verbs, with respect to their form, are divided 
into two classes, — regular and irregular, 

A regular verb is one which forms its past tense 
and perfect participle by taking cl or ed to the 
present tense; as, love, loved, loving, laved; learn, 
learned, learning, learned. 

An irregular verb is one which does not form its 
past tense and perfect participle by taking d or ed 
to the present tense ; as, am, was, being, been ; take, 
toolc, taking, taken. 

Verbs have four principal parts,— the present 
tense, the past tense, the imperfect participle, and 
the perfect participle. 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

Questions. — How are verbs divided with respect to their 
form ? What is a regular verb ? An irregular verb ? How 
many principal parts have verbs ? What are they ? 

EXERCISE. 

Models. 

Walk is a regular verb, it forms its past tense and perfect 
participle by taking ed; the principal parts are, 
present tense, walk, past tense, walked, imperfect 
participle, walking, perfect participle, walked. 

Speak is an irregular verb, it does not form its past tense 
and perfect participle by taking ed; the principal 
parts are, present tense, speak, past tense, spoke, 
imperfect participle, speaking, perfect participle, 
spoken. 

Describe the following verbs. 

Smile, talk, go, attend, strike, run, stay, conquer, 
kill, fill, mend, depend, freeze, steal, feel, shake, 
rise, raise, lie, (to speak falsely,) lie, (to recline,) lay, 
say, sit, set, smite, am, command, contend, drink, 
swim, bleed, dig, find, teach, think, seem, preserve, 
deserve, divide, deride, meet, bet, lend, hit, draw, 
ipart, grow, rain, rule, grind, know, pay, toil, buy, 
'sell, have, own, possess. 

VERBS, COMPLETE, DEFECTIVE, AND REDUNDANT. 

Verbs, with reference to their parts, are complete, 
defective, or redundant. 

A complete verbis one which has all the principal 
parts; as, smile, smiled, smiling, smiled; see, saw, 
seeing, seen. 



84 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

A defective verh is one which lacks some of the 
principal parts ; as, ought, quoth, beware. 

A redundant verb is one which has two or more 
forms to some of its parts ; as, cleave, clave or cleft, 
cleft or cloven. 

Questions, — How are verbs named with reference to their 
parts ? What is a complete verb ? Give examples. What 
is a defective verb ? Give examples. What is a redundant 
verb ? Give examples. 

VERBS, NEUTER, ACTIVE, AND PASSIVE. 

Verbs, in relation to the subject, are divided into 
three classes, — neuter, active, and passive. 

The subject of a verb is that of which being or 
action is expressed; as, Howard was benevolent. 
Caesar conquered. Carthage was destroyed. 

A neuter verb is one which represents the subject 
simply as existing ; as, He is. Mountains stand. 

An active verb is one which represents the subject 
as acting ; as, The boys run. The pupils study. 

A passive verb is one which represents the subject 
as acted upon ; as, I am taught. The earth was 
destroyed by water. 

REMARKS. 

1. The passive verb, strictly speaking, is the passive form 
of the active verb. 

2. The active verb may express phj^sical, mental, or moral 
action ; as, The man walks. The man thinks. The man l 
loves. Or it may express possession or ownership; as, 
The man has a book. The man owns a farm. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 85 

3. The division of verbs into neuter and active seems to 
be of no practical importance, and hence is not introduced 
in parsing. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Verbs have modifications of voice, mode, tense, 
person, and number. 

VOICE. 

Voice is a modification of the transitive verb to 
show the relation of its subject to the action 
expressed. 

There are two voices, — the active and the passive. 

The active voice represents the subject as acting; 
as ; John strikes. 

The passive voice represents the subject as acted 
upon ; as, John is struck. 

The passive voice is formed by joining the perfect parti- 
ciple of a transitive verb to some form of the verb to be. 

Questions. — What are the modifications of verbs ? What 
is voice ? How many voices have verbs, and what are 
they called ? What does the active voice represent ? What 
does the passive voice represent? How is the passive 
voice formed ? 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
Teach. Active voice, I teach ; passive voice, I am taught. 

Give the active and passive voice of each verb in 
the following examples. 

I hear. He lifts. It moves. You saw. He 
obeys. They convey. The man offends. It may 



86 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 






amend. He can choose. The boys find. It can 
change. 

Model. 

Active voice, John reads the book ; passive voice, The book 
is read by John. 

Change the active to the passive, and tlw passive to 
the active, in the following sentences. 

The letter was written by John. Columbus 
discovered America. Burns wrote poems. The 
sun melts the snow. The earth was refreshed by 
showers. Darius was defeated by Alexander. The 
Spectator was written by Addison. Washington 
defeated Cornwallis. Nero burned Rome. The 
wind shakes the tree. She saw a house. Dr. 
Kane visited the Arctic regions. The lesson was 
recited by the pupils. Virtue produces happiness. 
Misery is produced by vice and idleness. The 
lesson should be well studied by the pupils. The 
stag heard the sound of the hunters horn. John 
deceived his mother. The lion pursued the hunter. 
Vice ruins many. The world is deceived by orna- 
ment. 

MODES. 

Modes are modifications of the verb to distinguish 
its various uses. 

There are six modes ; the indicative, potential, sub- 
junctive, imperative, infinitive, and participial. 

The indicative mode expresses a declaration ; as ; 
I am. They walk. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 87 

The potential mode expresses a thing as possible 
or necessary ; as, He may walk. He must walk. 

The subjunctive mode expresses a condition or 
supposition ; as, If he study, he will improve. If he 
could go, he would. 

The imperative mode is used to express a com- 
mand or petition ; as, Go thou. Do go. 

The infinitive mode is not limited by number 
and person, having no nominative ; as, He com- 
menced to vjrite. The letter is said to have been 
written well. 

The participial mode is used to assume the verbal 
attribute ; as, She lives loving all, and loved by all. 

REMARKS. 

1. Both the indicative and potential modes may be used 
in asking questions ; as, Does John read ? Can John read f 

2. The indicative simply asserts action or being, or in- 
quires for action or being; as, 

Declarative. Interrogative. 

Action. John runs. Does John run ? 

Being. John is well. Is John well ? 

3. The potential mode expresses the power, necessity, 
permission, will, or obligation to act or to. be. It may be 
expressed declaratively or interrogatively ; as, 





Declarative. 


Interrogative. 


Power. 


He can go. 


Can he go ? 


Necessity. 


He must go. 


Must he go ? 


Permission. 


He may go. 


May he go? 


Will 


He would go. 


Would he go ? 


Obligation. 


He should go. 


Should he go ? 



SS PROGRESSIVE SERIES'. 

SIGNS OF THE MODES. 

The potential, subjunctive^ and infinitive modes 
may generally be known by their signs. 

The signs of the potential are the auxiliaries 
may, can, nmst, might, could, would, and should. 

The signs of the subjunctive are the conjunc- 
tions if, though, unless, except, whether, lest, that, 
and provided. 

The sign of the infinitive is the preposition to 
introducing the verb. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Verbs in the participial mode are generally called 
participles : they are used to assume the verbal 
attribute. 

REMARKS.. 

1. The attribute may be assumed or asserted; as, " The 
lady lived!, loved by all :" here the attribute lived is asserted 
of the lady, and loved is assumed. " The sun, rising m splen- 
dor, gilded the mountain-top £' here the attribute rising 
is assumed of the sun, and gilded is asserted. 

"The traveler heard the wind roaring:" in this sentence 
Jteard is asserted of traveler, and roaring is assumed of 
wind. 

2. The participial adjective also assumes the verbal attri- 
bute, and hence the participle is said to partake of the 
nature of the verb and of the adjective, and from this 
derives its name. 

The participle may be distinguished from the participial 
adjective by its being placed after the substantive to which 



BURTT*S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

it relates, the participial adjective being generally placed 
before ; as in the following examples : — 

Participles. Participial Adjectives* 

See the sun setting. See the setting sun. 

See the moon rising. See the rising moon. 
The branch broken by the 

wind fell. The broken branch fell. 
He was a man learned in the 

sciences. He was a learned man. 

3. By transposition the participle is sometimes placed 
before its subject; as, Rising, he walked away; i.e. He, 
rising, walked away. Impelled by his feelings, he spoke 
earnestly; i.e. He, impelled by his feelings, spoke earnestly. 

Questions. — What are modes ? How many are the modes? 
Name them. What does the indicative mode express? 
The potential? The subjunctive ? The imperative ? De- 
fine the infinitive mode. The participial. What two 
modes are used in asking questions ? What is said of the 
indicative mode in Eemark 2 ? 

Write six sentences in which the indicative mode shall be 
used declaratively, and six in which it shall be used interroga- 
tively. 

What is said of the potential mode in Eemark 8 ? i 

Write six sentences in which the potential mode shall be used 
declaratively, and six in which it shall be used interrogatively. 

What modes may be generally known by their signs? 
What are the signs of the potential mode? Of the sub- 
junctive ? Of the infinitive ? What are verbs in the par- 
ticipial mode commonly called ? For what are participles 
used ? Write six sentences each containing a participle. 
What besides the participle assumes. the verbal attribute ? 
How may the participle be distinguished from the parti- 
cipial adjective ? 



90 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Write sentences in which the following words shall be used 
first ticiples, and secondly as participial adjectives: — 

Moving, standing revised, growing, developed, distin- 
guished, coming, departing. 

Do participles always follow their subjects? Give ex- 
amples in which they are placed before their subjects. 

TENSES, 

Tenses are modifications of the verb to distin- 
guish time. 

There are six tenses, — the present, past, future, 
present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. 

The present tense denotes present time ; as, John 
writes. John is writing. 

The past tense denotes past time indefinite ; as, 
John wrote. John did write. 

The future tense denotes future time indefinite; 
as, John will write. John shall write. 

The present perfect tense denotes time completed 
at the present; as, John lias written. Has John 
ivritten ? 

The past perfect tense denotes time completed at 
a past time ; as, John had written. 

The future perfect tense denotes time completed 
at a future time ; as, John will have written. 

The indicative and subjunctive modes have all 
the tenses. 

The potential mode has four tenses, — the present^ 
past, present perfect, and past perfect. 



BURTTS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 91 

The imperative mode has only the present tense. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses, the present 
and present perfect. 

; PAETICIPLES. 

There are two participles, the imperfect and the 
perfect. 

The imperfect participle denotes the continuance 
of action or being. 

The perfect participle denotes action or being 
completed. 

Participles are also distinguished as active and 
passive. 

Imperfect. Perfect. 

Active voice. Reading. Having read. 

Having been reading. 
Passive voice. Being read. Read. Having been read. 

Participles, as well as verbs in the other modes, 
may be transitive or intransitive. 

They are sometimes divided into simple and 
compound. 

A simple participle is one which consists of a 
single word ; as, doing, done. 

A compound participle is one composed of two or 
more words ; as, being read, having been read, 

Questions. — What are tenses ? How many are the tenses, 
and what are they called ? Define the present tense. The 
past. The future. The present perfect. The past per- 



92 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

feet. The future perfect. Which modes have all the 
tenses? How many tenses has the potential mode, and 
which are they ? Which mode has only the present tense ? 
How many tenses has the infinitive mode, and which are 
they? How many participles, and what are they called? 
What does the imperfect participle denote? What does 
the perfect participle denote ? How are participles other- 
wise distinguished? Have participles the same divisions 
as the other modes with respect to the object? What is a 
simple participle ? A compound participle ? 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

An auxiliary verb is one which is used in the 
conjugation of other verbs. They are, do, be, have, 
willy shall, may, can, and must. 

Do, be, have, and will are also used as principal 
verbs. 

Questions. — What is an auxiliary verb? Repeat the 
auxiliaries. Which of these are sometimes used as prin- 
cipal verbs? 

EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, tell which are principal 
and which are auxiliary verbs. 

John had walked. The work has been well 
done. He was greatly disappointed. John loved 
study. He could have accomplished it. It may 
be true. He cannot escape. He must have been 
well taught. The discovery was quickly made. 
You should have obeyed the direction. Is the 
work done ? Could you have done better ? 



BURTT S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



93 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 







Singular. 






Plural, 






1st per. 


2d per. 


3d per. 


1st per. 


2d per. 


3d per. 




/ 


Thou 


He 


We 


You 


They 


Pres.- 


-—Am 


art 


is 


are 


are 


are 


Past 


—Was 


wast 


was 


were 


were 


were 


Pres. 


—Do 


dost 


does 


do 


do 


do 


Past 


—Did 


didst 


did 


did 


did 


did 


Pres. 


— Have 


hast 


has 


have 


have 


have 


Past 


—Had 


hadst 


had 


had 


had 


had 


Pres. 


—Will 


wilt 


will 


will 


will 


will 


Past 


—Would 


wouldst 


would 


would 


would 


would 


Pres. 


—Shall 


shalt 


shall 


shall 


shall 


shall 


Past- 


—Should 


shouldst 


should 


should 


should 


should 


Pres. 


—May 


mayst 


may 


may 


may 


may 


Past 


—Might 


mightst 


might 


might 


might 


might 


Pres. 


— Can 


canst 


can 


can 


can 


can 


Past. 


—Could 


couldst 


could 


could 


could 


could 



SHALL AND WILL. 

In declarative sentences, shall in the first person simply 
foretells 5 as, I shall write. 

In the second and third persons, it denotes a promise, 
command, or determination ; as, You shall be rewarded. 
Thou shalt not kill. He shall be punished. 

Will in the first person denotes a promise or determina- 
tion ; as, I will go. 

In the second and third persons, it simply foretells; as, 
You will soon be there. He will expect you. 

In interrogative sentences, the meaning of these auxilia- 
ries is less definite. 



94 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



FORMS OF THE TENSES. 

Transitive verbs, in the formation of their tenses, 
have three forms, the common, progressive, and pas- 
sive ; the first two being in the active voice. 

Intransitive verbs have two forms, the common 
and progressive, except the verb to he, which has 
only the common. 

In the indicative and potential modes, each form 
may be used in a declarative or interrogative sense. 

A synopsis represents the modes and tenses of 
a verb in one number and person. 

SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB TO TEACH. ' 

INDICATIVE MODE (COMMON FORM). 

Declarative. 

Present tense. I teach or do teach. 

Past tense. I taught or did teach. 

Future tense. I shall or will teach. 

Pres. per. tense. I have taught. 

Past per. tense. I had taught. 

Fut. per. tense. I shall or will have taught. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Future tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 
Fut. per. tense. 



Interrogative. 

Do I teach ? 

Did I teach ? 

Shall or will I teach ? 

Have I taught ? 

Had I taught ? 

Shall or will I have taught ? 



BURTT S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



95 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Future tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 
Fut. per. tense. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Future tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 
Fut. per. tense. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Declarative. 

I am teaching. 

I was teaching. 

I shall or will be teaching. 

I have been teaching. 

I had been teaching. 

I shall or will have been teaching. 

Interrogative. 

Am I teaching ? 

Was I teaching ? 

Shall or will I be teaching? 

Have I been teaching ? 

Had I been teaching ? 

Shall or will I have been teaching ? 



PASSIVE FORM. 

Declarative. 

Present tense. I am taught. 

Past tense. I was taught. 

Future tense. I shall or will be taught. 

Pres. per. tense. I have been taught. 

Past per. tense. I had been taught. 

Fut. per. tense. I shall or will have been taught. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Future tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 
Fut. per. tense. 



Interrogative. 

Am I taught ? 

Was I taught ? 

Shall or will I be taught ? 

Have I been taught ? 

Had I been taught ? 

Shall or will I have been taught ? 



96 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES, 



POTENTIAL MODE (COMMON FORM), 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Pres. per, tense. 
Past per. tense. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 

Pres. per, tense-. 
Past per. tense. 



Present tense. 

» 

Past tense. 

Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 



Declarative. 
1 may, can, or must teach. 
I might, could, would, or should teach. 
I may, can, or must have taught. 
I might, could, would, or should have 
taught. 

Interrogative. 
May, can, or must I teach ? 
Might, could, would, or should I teach ? 
May, can, or must I have taught ? 
Might, could, would, or should I have 
taught ? 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Declarative. 
I may, can, or must be teaching. 
I might, could, would, or should be 

teaching. 
I may, can, or must have been teaching. 
I might, could, would, or should have 

been teaching. 

Interrogative. 
May, can, or must I be teaching ? 
Might, could, would, or should I be 

teaching ? 
May, can, or must I have been teaching ? 
Might, could, would, or should I have 

been teaching ? 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 



PASSIVE FORM. 

Declarative, 

I may, can, or must be taught. 

I might, could, would, or should be taught. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



97 



Pres. per. tense. I may, can, or must have been taught. 
Past per. tense. I might, could, would, or should have 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 



been taught. 



Interrogative. 

May, can, or must I be taught ? 
Might, could, would, or should I be taught ? 
May, can, or must I have been taught ? 
Might, could, would, or should I have 
been taught ? 



IMPERATIVE MODE (COMMON FORM). 

Present tense. Teach, teach thou or you, or do thou or 
you teach. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. 



Present tense. 



Be teaching, be thou or you teaching, or 
do thou or you be teaching. 



PASSIVE FORM. 

Present tense. Be taught, be thou or you taught, or do 
thou or you be taught. 

INFINITIVE MODE (COMMON FORM). 

Present tense. To teach. 
Pres. per. tense. To have taught. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

Present tense. To be teaching. 

Pres. per. tense. To have been teaching. 



PASSIVE FORM. 



Present tense. To be taught. 

Pres. per. tense. To have been taught. 



98 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



PARTICIPIAL MODE* 



Imperfect. Teaching. 

Perfect. Taught, having taught, or having been 

taught. 



SYNOPSIS OF THE VERB TO BE. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Future tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 
Fut. per. tense. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Declarative. 
I am. 
I was. 

I shall or will be. 
I have been. 
I had been. 
I shall or will have 
been. 



Interrogative. 
Ami? 
Was I? 

Shall or will I be? 
Have I been ? 
Had I been ? 
Shall or will I have 
been? 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 



Present tense. 
Past tense. 
Pres. per. tense. 
Past per. tense. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Declarative. 

I may, can, or must be. 
I might, could, would, or should be. 
I may, can, or must have been. 
I might, could, would, or should have 
been. 

Interrogative. 

May, can, or must I be ? 
Might, could, would, or should I be ?' 
May, can, or must I have been ? 
Might, could, would, or should I have 
been? 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present tefise. Be, be thou or you, or do thou or you be. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present tense. To be. 

Pres. per. tense. To have been. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Imperfect. Being. 

Perfect. Been, or having been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The subjunctive mode is used in subordinate clauses 
which denote condition or supposition. It generally has 
the form of the indicative or potential, and may be known 
by its signs ; as, — 

Indicative. Subjunctive. 

He studies. If he studies. 

He goes. Except he goes. 

He acts wisely. Provided he acts wisely. 

Potential. Subjunctive. 

He can study. If he can study 

He might come. Lest he might come. 

He should go. Though he should go. 

REMARKS. 

1. The subjunctive mode has two peculiar forms. 

1st. The elliptical, when a future contingency is expressed ; 
as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him ; i.e. Though 
he should slay me, yet will I trust in him. If it rain to- 
morrow, I cannot go; i.e. If it should rain to-morrow, I 
cannot go. If he be here to-morrow, I will see him : i.e. If 
he wilt be here to-morrow, I will see him. 

2d. The hypothetical, in which were is used in the singular 
number and to denote present time; as, If I were not 
Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

This form is sometimes used to express an anxious de- 
sire ; as, Oh ! that the desert icere my dwelling-place ! 



100 PROGRESSIVE ; SERIES. 

2. The common form of the indicative present is used to 
express a general truth ; as, Men labor. Boys study. 

The progressive form expresses what is taking place at 
the present; as, The men are working in the field. The 
boys are studying their lessons. 

3. The tenses of the potential and subjunctive modes 
are generally indefinite with respect to time. 

4. Verbs in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, and 
imperative modes are called finite verbs. Those in the 
infinitive and participial modes are called infinitive verbs. 

5. The infinitive mode is sometimes used without the sign 
to, generally after the active voice of the verbs bid, dare, 
need, make, see, hear, feel, help, and let. 

EXERCISE. 

Models. 
Nero made laws to ensnare his subjects. 

Made is in the indicative mode, it expresses a declara- 
tion; past tense, it denotes past time. Synopsis, — 
indicative mode, common form ; present, he makes 
or does make ; past, he made or did make ; future, 
he shall or will make ; present perfect, he has made; 
past perfect, he had made; future perfect, he shall 
or will have made. 

To insnare is in the infinitive mode, it is not limited by 
number and person; present tense, it denotes 
present time. Synopsis, — infinitive mode, common 
form; present, to insnare; present perfect, to have 
insnare d. 

You may go. 
May go is in the potential mode, it expresses a thing as 
possible or necessary; present tense, it denotes 
present time. Synopsis, — potential mode, common 
form; present, you may, can, or must go ; past, you 
might, could, would, or should go ; present perfect, 



BURTT'S. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 101 

you may, can, or must have gone ; past perfect, you 
might, could, would, or should have gone. 

If he is much esteemed, I am deceived. 

Is esteemed is in the subjunctive mode, it expresses a con- 
dition or supposition; present tense, it denotes 
present time. Synopsis, — subjunctive mode, pas- 
sive form ; present, if he is esteemed ; past, if he was 
esteemed; future, if he shall or will be esteemed; 
present perfect, if he has been esteemed; past perfect, 
if he had been esteemed ; future perfect, if he shall 
or will have been esteemed 

Am deceived is in the indicative mode, it expresses a dec- 
laration ; present tense, it denotes present time. 
Synopsis, — indicative mode, passive form; present, I 
am deceived; past, I was deceived; future, I shall 
or will be deceived ; present perfect, I have been 
deceived ; past perfect, I had been deceived ; future 
perfect, I shall or will have been deceived. 

Tell the mode and tense, and give a synapsis, of each 
verb in the following sentences. 

Kain descends. Waters flow. The sun is 
shining. The wind was roaring. They had been 
walking. Is he learned? Who can read best? 
What should he do? Was he writing? Will he 
be working? He is improved. It was discovered. 
Was it discovered? It will be done. Will it be 
done ? If he remain, I will go. He commenced 
to work. Seek virtue's reward. Unless he travel 
rapidly, he will not be in time. See the lambs 
playing. Hear the wind roaring. The boys 
having recited their lessons were dismissed. The 
branch broken by the wind fell. It cannot be he. 

9* 



102 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

If he could go, he would. Ask, and it shall be 
given you. Seek, and you shall find. The ship, 
driven ashore by the wind, was wrecked. You 
must exert yourself, if you would succeed. It 
cannot be known. I desired him to write. He is 
expected. It may be true. It must have been 
done quickly. 

Give a synapsis of the following verbs in all the 
modes, forms, &c, using the pronouns I, we, thou, 
you, he, and they. 

Am, smile, discover, complete, continue, live, 
conquer, write, read. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

The person and number of a verb are modifica- 
tions to agree with its nominative. 

Verbs, like their subjects, have three persons 
and two numbers. 

Singular. Plural. 

I write, we write, 

thou writest, you write, 

he writes, they write. 

The verb must be of the same number anc 
person as its nominative. 

The verb which agrees with the pronoun you is 
always plural. 

Verbs in the infinitive mode have no number 
and person, because they have no nominative, 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 

Questions. — What are the person and number of the verb ? 
How many persons and numbers have verbs? Of what 
number and person must the verb be ? What verbs have 
no number and person, and why ? 

EXERCISE, 

Tell the number and person of the verb, and why y 
in the following sentences. 

I read. Thou readest. He reads. We hear. 
You labor. I am. He is. You are. We were. 
They were studious. You are known. They are 
deceived. Rain descends. Rains descend. The 
boy has a ball. My friends have arrived. Re- 
member thy Creator. Cease to do evil, and learn 
to do well. 

CONJUGATION. 

Conjugation is a regularly combined and arranged 
expression of all the variations of one verb. 

CONJUGATION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB TO BE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Past. 

Am, y 



Singular. 

1. I am, 

2. Thou art, 

3. Heist 



■. Imper. Part. 

being, 




Perfect Part 
been. 


INDICATIVE MODE. 






Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


Plural. 
We are, 
You are, 
They are. 



104 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, „, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. You were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 

Future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be ; 3. They shall or will be. 

' v Present Perfect Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

. Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been ; 3. They shall or will have been. 







jr 


u» J. JCiiN JL J..O.JU ±VL\JUJh. 

Present Tense. 






Signs, 


may, 


can, must. — Inflect with each. 






Singular. 




Plural. 




1. 


I may be, 




1. We may be, 




2. 


Thou mayst be, 




2. You may be, 




3. 


He may be ; 




3. They may be, 










Past Tense. 



Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be ; 3. They might be. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 105 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Signs, may have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should, have.— Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (ELLIPTICAL FORM). 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural, 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. H thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be ; 3. If they be. 

(HYPOTHETICAL FORM.) 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were ; 3. If they were. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Singular, Plural. 

2. Be, be thou or you, or do thou 2. Be, be ye or you, or do ye or 

or you be. you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. Present Perfect Tense. 

To be. To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, Being. Perfect, Been, or having been. 



106 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO LOVE, ACTIVE VOICE. 







PRINCIPAL PARTS. 




Vesent 


Past. 


Imper. Part. 


Perfect Part 


Love, 


loved, 


loving, 


loved. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular* Plural. 

1. I love or do* love. 1. We love or do love, 

2. Thou lovest or dost love, 2. You love or do love, 

3. He loves or does love ; 3. They love or do love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved or did* love, 1. We loved or did love, 

2. Thou lovedst or didst love, 2. You loved or did love, 

3. He loved or did love ; 3. They loved or did love. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2, You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love ; 3. They shall or will love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved ; 3. They shall or will have loved. 

* Do and did make the emphatic form, of the present and past tenses. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 

Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightest love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Signs, may have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. 1 may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (ELLIPTICAL FORM). 

Present Tense. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love ; 3. If they love. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. - 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, love thou or you, or do thou 2. Love, love ye or you, or do ye 
or you love. or you love. 



108 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Pres. Tense, To love. Pres. Per. Tense, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Loving. Perfect, Having loved. 

CONJUGATION OF TO LOVE, PASSIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 3. They are loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 

Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 2. You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved; 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 
8. He has been loved ; 3. They have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved; 3. They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

Signs, shall have, will have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou shalt have been loved, 2. You shall have been loved, 

3. He shall have been loved ; 3. They shall have been loved. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 109 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 

Past Tense. 

Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

Signs, may have, can have, must have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have. — Inflect with each. 

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE (ELLIPTICAL FORM). 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved. 

(HYPOTHETICAL FORM.) 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

10 



110 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



Singular. 
2. Be thou loved. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Plural. 
2. Be ye or you loved. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be loved. Pres. Per., To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect, Being loved. Perfect, Loved, having been loved. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 
Those marked with an B. have also a regular form. 



Present, 


Past. 


Imper. Participle. 


Per. Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


beings 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arising, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, R. 


awaking, 


awaked. 


Bear (to produce) 


, bore, 


bearing, 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, bare, 


bearing, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beating, 


beaten, beat. 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, R. 


bending, 


bent, R. 


Bereave, 


bereft, R. 


bereaving, 


bereft, R. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bidding, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, un~ 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Build, re- 


built, R. 


building, 


built, R. 


Burn, 


burnt, R. 


burning, 


burnt, R. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


east, 


casting, 


cast, 



EURTTS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Ill 



Present, 


Past 


Tnq->er. Participle. 


Per. Participle. 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


catching, 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chidden, chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Cleave (to adhere) 


, cleaved, clave, 


cleaving, 


cleaved. 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove, 


cleaving, 


cleft, R., cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clad, R. 


clothing, 


clad, R. 


Come, be- 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


creeping, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, R. 


crowing, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 


Dare (to venture) 


durst, 


daring, 


dared. 


Dare (to challenge), dared, 


daring, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealing, 


dealt, R. . 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


digging, 


dug, R. 


Do, mis- un- 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R. 


dreaming, 


dreamt, R. 


Drink, 


drank, 


. drinking, 


drank, drunk. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


dwelling, 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


ate, eat, 


eating, 


eaten. 


Fall, be- 


fell, 


falling, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flinging, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flying, 


flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forbearing, 


forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


forgetting, 


forgotten, forgot. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaking, 


forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing, 


frozen. 


Get, be- for- 


got, gat, 


getting, 


gotten, got. 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


gilding, 


gilt, R. 


Gird, be- en- 


girt, R. 


girding, 


girt, R. 


Give, for- mis- 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


going, 


gone. 


Grave, en- R. 


graved, 


graving, 


graven, graved. 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 



112 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



Present 


Past 


Imper. Participle, 


Per. Participle. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R. 


hanging, 


hung, R. 


Have, 


had, 


having, 


had. 


Hear, 


heard, 


hearing, 


heard. 


Heave, 


hove, R. 


heaving, 


hoven, R, 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewing, 


hewn, R. 


Hide, 


hid, 


hiding, 


hidden, hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, be- with- 


held, 


holding, 


held, holden. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurting, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


keeping, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R. 


kneeling, 


knelt, R. 


Knit, 


knit, 


knitting, 


knit, R. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing, 


known. 


Lade (to load), 


laded, 


lading, 


laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 


Lead, mis- 


led, 


leading, 


led. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


letting, 


let. 


Lie (to recline). 


lay, 


tying, 


lain. 


Light, 


lighted, lit, 


lighting, 


lighted, lit. 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meaning, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing, 


mown, R. 


Pay, re- 


paid, 


paying, 


paid. 


Pen (to enclose), 


pent, R. 


penning, 


pent, R. 


Put, 


put, 


putting, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, R. 


quitting, 


quit, R. 


Read, 


read, 


reading, 


read. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rending, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, rid, 


riding, 


ridden, rid. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


ringing, 


rung. 


Rise, a- 


rose, 


rising, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riving, 


riven, R. 


Rot, 


rotted, 


rotting, 


rotten, R. 


Run, 


ran, run, 


running, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawing, 


sawn, R. 


Say, 


said, 


saying, 


said. 





BURTT S ENGLISH GRAMM 


AR. 


Present, 


Past. 


Imper. Participle. 


Per. Participle. 


See, 


saw, 


seeing, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


seeking, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, sod, 


seething, 


seethed, sod* 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sending, 


sent. 


Set, 6e- 


set, 


setting, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaking, 


shaken. 


Shape, mis- 


shaped, 


shaping, 


sha-pen, & 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving, 


shaven, R. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shearing, 


shorn, R. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shedding, 


sned. 


Shine, 


shone, R. 


shining, 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shooting, 


shot 


Show, 


showed, 


showing, 


sbown, R. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, shrank, 


shrinking, 


shrunk. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shredding, 


shred. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shutting, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sang, sung, 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sinking, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slaying, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


sliding, 


slidden, slid. 


Sling, 


slung, slang, 


slinging, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, 


slitting, 


, slit, slitted. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smiting, 


smitten. 


Sow (to scatter), 


sowed, 


sowing, 


sown, R. 


Speak, be- 


spoke, spake, 


speaking, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


speeding, 


sped. 


Spell, 


spelt, R. 


spelling, 


spelt, R. 


Spend, mis- 


spent, 


spending, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilling, 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun, span, 


spinning, 


spun. 


Spit, be- 


spit, spat, 


spitting, 


spit. 


Split, 


split, 


splitting, 


split. 


Spread, be- 


spread, 


spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprang, sprung, 


springing, 


sprung. 


Stand, with, &e. 


stood, 


standing, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking, 


stuck. 



113 



M« 



114 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



Present 


Past. 


Imper. Participle. 


Per. Participle, 


Sting, 


stung, 


stinging, 


stung. 


Stride, be- 


strode, strid, 


striding, 


stridden, strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck, stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


stringing, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striving, 


striven. 


Strew, be- 


strewed, 


strewing, 


strewed, strewn. 


Strow, fo- 


strowed, 


str owing, 


strowed, strown. 


Swear, 


swore, sware, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R. 


sweating, 


sweat, R. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, . 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling, 


swollen, R. 


Swim, 


swam, swum, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, be-, &c. 


took, 


taking, 


taken. 


Teach, mis- re- 


taught, 


teaching, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, tare, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, be- 


thought, 


thinking, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, throve, 


thriving, 


thriven, R. 


Throw, 


threw, 


throwing, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


trodden, trod. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxing, 


waxen, R. 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


weaving, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


weeping, 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet, R. 


wetting, 


wet, R. 


Whet, 


whet, R. 


whetting, 


whet, R. 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, R, 


winding, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, R. 


working, 


wrought, R. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wringing, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, 


written. 



EXERCISE. 

Models. 
John studies to improve his mind. 
Studies is a verb, it signifies to do ; regular, it forms its 
past tense and perfect participle by taking ed; 
the principal parts arc study, studied, studyina.. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 115 

studied ; intransitive, it has no object; in the indi- 
cative mode, it expresses a declaration; present 
tense, it denotes present time; and of the third 
person and singular number, to agree with its 
subject John, according to Eule VIII. : — The finite 
verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 
(Give a synopsis in the indicative mode, third per- 
son singular, common declarative form.) 
To improve is a verb, it signifies to do ; regular, it forms 
its past tense and perfect participle by taking d ; 
the principal parts are improve, improved, improving, 
improved; transitive, it has an object; in the infini- 
tive mode, it is not limited by number and person ; 
present tense, it denotes present time ; and refers 
to the noun John for its subject, according to Eule 
XI. : — Infinitives and participles relate to nouns and 
pronouns as their subjects. (Give a synopsis.) 

See the vessels sailing. 

See is a verb, it signifies to do ; irregular, it does not 
form its past tense and perfect participle by taking 
ed; the principal parts are see, saiv, seeing, seen; 
transitive, it has an object; in the imperative 
mode, it expresses a command or entreaty ; present 
tense, it denotes present time; and of the second 
person, singular or plural number, to agree with 
its subject thou or you understood, according to 
Eule VIII. (Repeat the rule, and give a synopsis.) 
synopsis.) 

Sailing is a participle, a mode of the verb used to assume 
the attribute ; the principal parts are sail, sailed, 
sailing, sailed ; intransitive, it has no object; im- 
perfect, it denotes the continuance of an unfin- 
ished action, and refers to the noun vessel for its 
subject, according to Eule XL (Repeat the rule.) 
Imperfect participle, sailing ; perfect, sailed or 
having sailed. 



116 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

John the Baptist was a great prophet. 

Baptist is a noun, it is a name j proper, it is a particular 
name; of the masculine gender, it denotes a male; 
third person, it denotes the object spoken of; 
singular number, it expresses bat one; and in the 
nominative case, being in apposition with the 
noun John, according to Eule II. : — A noun or pro- 
noun in apposition is put in the same case as the sub- 
stantive which it limits. 

Was is a verb, it signifies to be ; irregular, it does not 
form its past tense and perfect participle by taking 
ed; the principal parts are am, was, being, been; 
intransitive, it has no object; in the indicative 
mode, it expresses a declaration; past tense, it 
denotes past time ; and of the third person and 
singular number, to agree with its nominative 
John, according to Rule VIII. (Repeat the rule, 
and give a synopsis of the verb in the indicative mode, 
third person singular.) 

Prophet is a noun, &c, and in the nominative case after 
the intransitive verb was, according to Rule X. : — 
Intransitive and passive verbs have the same case after 
as before them, when both words refer to the same thing. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Parse the nouns and pronouns in italics, and all 
the verbs. 

John writes. John is writing. The letter is 
written. This is the man. Paul, the Apostle, 
preached. He, the minister, was there. He was 
called John. She sits a queen. You should honor 
and obey your parents. Joseph has been sick. 
Can he walk ? Could they go ? Is he improving ? 
It cannot be he. I knew it to be her. Do you 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 117 

know Mr. Brown, him that keeps the book-store ? 
It was the Hon. Wm. F. Johnson, he that was 
governor. 

Seek wisdom. Strive for virtue's reward. Cease 
to do evil, and learn to do well. Love your 
enemies ; do good to them that hate you. If your 
enemy hunger, give him food; if he thirst, give 
him drink. He will come, if he can. Nothing 
delights some persons; others are easily pleased. 
He would pay his debts, if he could. It might be 
done. 

Let him learn his lesson. Bid him come. Hear 
him sing. They dare not go. Did you see the 
cars run? The sun having risen, we departed. 
The sun, rising, gilded the mountain-tops. She was 
found reading the poem. I saw him walking in 
the field. She lives loving all, and loved by all. 
Seek to have anarchy destroyed. Can he be 
coming ? He was traveling rapidly. He has been 
injured. 

Take heed lest any man deceive you. If I 
were he, I would consent. Were you in his place, 
what would you do? Oh that men were more 
wise ! Boast not thyself of to-morrow ; for thou 
knowest not what a day may bring forth. Give me 
neither poverty nor riches ; feed me with food con- 
venient for me ; lest I be full, and deny thee, and 
say, " Who is the Lord ?" or lest I be poor, and steal, 
and take the name of my God in vain. 



118 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb; as, He will not go. 
He is very good. He writes very well. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

The principal classes of adverbs are : — 

1. Of manner; as, wisely, foolishly, justly, quickly, how. 

2. Of degree or quantity; as, much, very, little, sufficiently, 
enough, abundantly, more, less. 

3. Of place; as, here, there, where, near, for, anywhere, 
everywhere. 

4. Of time; as, now, when, before, lately, soon, presently, 
yesterday, always. 

5. Of number; as, once, twice, thrice. 

6. Of order ; as, first, secondly, lastly, finally. 

7. Of affirmation ; as, yea, yes, verily, truly, certainly. 

8. Of negation ; as, nay, no, not, by no means, not at all. 

9. Of doubt; as, haply, perhaps, possibly, perchance. 

10. Of cause or reason; as, why, wherefore, therefore, hence. 

Most adverbs may be known by their asking or 
answering the following questions : — 

Of manner. How ? In what manner ? 

Of degree or quantity. How much? In what de- 
gree ? 

Of place. Where? Whither? Whence? 

Of time. When ? How long ? 

Of number. How often ? 

Of cause or reason. Why ? Wherefore ? 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 119 

Questions. — What is an adverb ? How many are the 
principal classes of adverbs ? What are they called ? Ee- 
peat some adverbs of manner. Of degree or quantity. Of 
place. Of time. Of number. Of order. Of affirmation. 
Of negation. Of doubt. Of cause or reason. What ques- 
tions do adverbs of manner ask or answer ? Adverbs of 
degree or quantity ? Adverbs of place ? Adverbs of time ? 
Adverbs of number? Adverbs of cause or reason? 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

A conjunctive adverb is one which is used to 
connect clauses, and hence performs the office of a 
conjunction. It always introduces an adverbial 
clause ; as, I know where he is. I saw him when 
he came. 

Questions. — What is a conjunctive adverb? What office 
does it perform ? What kind of clause does it always intro- 
duce? In the first sentence given as an example, which 
word is a conjunctive adverb, and what clauses does it con- 
nect ? In the second example ? 

MODIFICATIONS. 

A few adverbs are compared in the same manner 
as adjectives ; as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, 
oftenest ; wisely, more wisely, most wisely ; little, less, 
least; much, more, most ; well, better, best. 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
The man walks slowly: he is very old. 
Slowly is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of 
a verb; of manner, and modifies the verb walks, 
according to Exile XIY. : — Adverbs modify verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs. 



120 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



Very is an adverb, a ward used to modify the sense of 
an adjective ; of degree or quantity, and modifies 
the adjective old, according to Eule XI Y. (Re- 
peat the rule.) 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

The boy studies diligently. Time flies very swiftly* 
He came too soon. You came yesterday. They 
will return to-day. This will never do. Johijt 
went also. Howard was very benevolent. It was 
not very good. The book is here. Why was he 
so sad ? When will he go ? I will see him then 
too. He drinks too much. Brutus loved Caesar 
much, but he loved Rome more. Where does he 
live ? He lives here. He acted ably, wisely, and 
nobly. 

Perhaps he will come to-morrow. He may 
possibly eome sooner. You learn grammar very 
well. He will eome much oftener. James writes 
most elegantly. Will he not come ? Perhaps he 
will. He is ever watchful. Is he always ready? 
Will he soon come? He went to the country 
yesterday. It moves rapidly. Sleep seldom visits 
sorrow. Here will I rest, for I am extremely 
weary. A truly good man worships God. The 
rain has been constantly pouring down. The 
balloon went up rapidly. 

Joyfully the fountain dances ; 
Softly falls the virgin snow. 



BXJRTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



121 



PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition is a word used to express the 
relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word ; 
as, The love of wisdom. Walk before him. The 
house is high in front. 

The following list embraces most of the preposi- 
tions in common use. 



About, 


at, 


^ 


on, 


under, 


above, 


athwart, 


concerning, 


over, 


underneath^ 


across, 


before, 


down, 


respecting, 


until, 


after, 


behind, 


during, 


round, 


unto, 


against, 


below, 


except, 


since, 


up, 


along, 


beneath, 


excepting, 


through, 


upon, 


amid, 


beside, 


for, 


throughout, 


with, 


amidst, 


besides, 


from, 


till, 


within, 


among, 


between, 


in, 


to, 


without, 


amongst, 


betwixt, 


into, 


toward, 


worth. 


around, 


beyond, 


of, 


towards, 








REMARKS. 





1. Words which are generally prepositions become ad- 
verbs by being used without an objective case after them; 
as, 

Prepositions. 

He runs about the fields. 
They walked before the carriage. 
He is within the state. 
He went up the road. 

2. A used in the sense of at, in, on, to, or by. is a preposi- 
tion; as, a hunting, a fishing. 

3. Two words are sometimes taken as forming one pre- 

11 



Adverbs. 

He runs about. 
They walked before. 
He is within. 
He got up and walked. 



122 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

position ; as, He departed from amongst them. He set the 
one over against the other. 

4. But in the sense of except is a preposition; as, All 
but him had fled. She speaks of none but him. 

Questions. — What is a preposition ? In the first sentence 
given as an example, which word is a preposition, and be- 
tween what words does it show the relation? In the 
second? In the third? What do words which are 
generally prepositions become when used without an ob- 
ject? Give examples. When is a a preposition? What 
is remark third ? When is but jl preposition ? 

EXERCISE. 

Model 
He lives in Paris. 
In is a preposition, a word used to show the relation of 
a noun or pronoun to some other word : it shows 
the relation between lives and Paris, according to 
Eule XV. : — Prepositions connect xoords, and show the 
relation between them. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

They sailed from Liverpool. The Greeks re- 
turned from the siege of Troy. Solomon succeeded 
to the throne of his father. Homer is supposed to 
have lived in Greece about the time of Solomon. 
Athens was at first governed by kings. He 
reasoned out of the Scriptures. Plato at the age 
of twenty was introduced to Socrates. Julius 
Csesar rose into notice by his military services in 
various parts of the Roman Empire. The battle 
lasted from early in the morning till noon. Cleo- 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 

patra, Queen of Egypt, came to Tarsus in a galley 
decorated with gold. Peter said, I go a fishing. 
The knife is worth a dollar. The waters poured 
down the rock. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Connecting words. — You and I will go. It was John or 
James. Neither William nor his brother was there. 

Connecting phrases. — He commenced to teach and to 
preach. He went through fire and through water. 

Connecting clauses. — Wheat grows in the field, and men 
reap it. I will go, if he will return. James is happy, be- 
cause he is good. 

REMARK. 

A conjunction is sometimes used to introduce a clause ; 
as, That he is guilty is evident. But is this true. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Conjunctions are of two classes, — coordinate and 
subordinate. 

A coordinate conjunction is one that connects 
elements of similar rank; as, Time is short, and 
eternity is long. You or I must go. 

A subordinate conjunction is one that connects 
elements of dissimilar rank; as, I will walk, that 
you may ride. I will go, lest he should be angry. 



124 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



LIST OF CONJUNCTIONS. 






Coordinate. — And, also, as well as, but, still, yet, 
nevertheless, notwithstanding, else, or, nor, neither. 

Subordinate. — If, though, although, unless, except, 
whether, lest, that, provided, for, since, because, 
than, as, whereas, \ 'lasmuch as. 

R2MARKS. 

The word and phrase elements, connected by a conjunc- 
tion, are of similar rank : hence only coordinate conjunc- 
tions are used to connect words and phrases. 

A principal and a subordinate clause are elements of dis- 
similar rank: hence a conjunction uniting them is a subor- 
dinate conjunction, and one connecting similar clauses, i.e. 
both principal or both subordinate, is a coordinate conjunc- 
tion. 

Conjunctions are also divided into copulative and 
disjunctive. 

The copulative conjunction is one which denotes 
an addition, a supposition, or a cause ; as, James 
went to the city, and returned quickly. I will go, 
if he will accompany me. He learns fast, because 
he studies carefully. 

The copulatives are, and, as well as, if, that, both, 
for, because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. 

A disjunctive conjunction is one which denotes 
opposition of meaning; as, Be not overcome by 
evil, but overcome evil with good. 

The principal disjunctives are, or, nor, either, 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 125 

neither, than, though, although, yet, hut, except, 
whether, lest, unless, save, notwithstanding. 

CORRELATIVES CONNECTIVES. 

Correlatives are connectives which reciprocate 
with each other to mark the sense more closely. 
They may be conjunctions or conjunctive adverbs; 

as, 

Though — yet. Though he slay me, yet will I trust 

in him. 
Either — or. Either John or his brother was 

there. 
Whether — or. I care not whether you go or stay. 
Neither — nor. He would neither go nor stay. 
Both — and. He can both read and write. 
When — then. When pride cometh, then cometh 

shame. 
Where — there. Where you are there will he be. 

Questions. — What is a conjunction? Give examples in 
which conjunctions connect words. In which conjunctions 
connect phrases. In which conjunctions connect clauses. 
What is the first classification of conjunctions given? 
What is a coordinate conjunction ? What is a subordinate 
conjunction ? What is said of the word and the phrase 
elements connected by a conjunction ? Whkt kind of con- 
junction connects words and phrases? What elements are 
of similar rank? What kind of clauses does a subor- 
dinate conjunction connect? A coordinate conjunction? 
How are conjunctions otherwise divided ? What is a copu- 
lative conjunction? A disjunctive conjunction? What 
are correlatives? What parts of speech may they be? 
Give examples. 






126 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

EXERCISE. 

Models. 
James and John are happy, because they are good 

And is a conjunction, a word used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses; coordinate, it connects elements 
of similar rank, and unites the words John and James, 
according to Rule XVII. : — Conjunctions connect 
words, phrases, and clauses. 

Are is a verb, it signifies to be ; irregular, &c, and of 
the third person and plural number, to agree with 
its subjects James and John taken together, accord- 
tig to Rule XII. : — When two or more singular nouns 
or pronouns are taken together, a verb or pronoun to 
agree with them must be plural. 

Because is a conjunction, a word used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses; subordinate, it connects ele- 
ments of dissimilar rank, and unites clauses, according 
to Rule XVII. (Repeat the rule.) 

They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun, &c, 
of the third person and plural number, to agree 
with its antecedents James and John taken together, 
according to Rule XII. (Repeat the rule.) 

Note. — When the nouns or pronouns are taken separately, use Rule 
XIII., and let the model conform thereto. 

Where thou goest, I will go. 

Where is a conjunctive adverb, a word used to connect 
clauses; subordinate, it connects elements of dissimilar 
rank, and unites clauses, according to Rule XVII. 
{Repeat the rule.) 

He controls both public and private affairs. 

Both is a conjunction, a word used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses ; correlative, it reciprocates 
with and, to mark the sense more closely. 



. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 

And is a conjunction, a word used to connect words, 
phrases, and clauses; coordinate, it connects ele- 
ments of similar rank, and unites the words public 
and private, according to Eule XYII. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Kiches and honor are with me. "Wisdom or 
folly governs us. Hear instruction, and be wise. 
Wisdom is the principal thing, therefore get 
wisdom. He will read, if you will listen. I will 
go, for I cannot remain. He will walk, that you 
may ride. Though he should fall, he will rise 
again. I know why you lent the umbrella. The 
sun was shining when I awoke. While he is sick, 
he is penitent. You may go when he returns. 
He can both read and write. Either the boy or 
girl was present. Give me neither poverty nor 
riches. 

INTEKJECTIONS. 

An interjection is an exclamatory word used to ex- 
press some emotion of the mind ; as, oh ! ah ! alas ! 

Interjections are used independently ; i.e. with- 
I out dependence on other words. 

The principal interjections are, — 

1. Of sorrow, oh! ah! alas! alack! 

2. Of wonder, ah ! strange! really! 

3. Of calling, ho ! soho ! tallyho ! 

4. Of exultation, aha ! huzza ! hurrah ! 

5. Of laughter, he, he, he ! ha, ha, ha ! 



128 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

6. Of salutation, hail ! all hail! welcome! 

7. Of attention, lo ! behold ! look ! see ! hark ! 

8. Of sileiwe, hush ! hist ! mum ! 

9. Of disgust, fudge I fie! pshaw! avaunt! 

REMARKS. 

I. 1 Some words used as exclamations have the sense of 
adjectives or verbs ; as, Strange I i.e. It is strange. Welcome! 
i.e. You are welcome. Behold ! i.e. See thou. Hark! i.e. Hear 
thou. Such may be parsed as interjections, or as the other 
parts of speech with which they agree in sense. 

2. The interjection should be used to introduce the 
object of direct address; and Oh should not be used for that 
purpose; as, O Freedom! thou art not as poets dream. 
Oh ! cherish then this precious legacy. 

Questions. — What is an interjection ? How many kinds 
of interjections, and what are they called? Give examples 
of each kind. What meaning do some interjections seem 
to have ? Give examples having the meaning of an adjec- 
tive. Give examples having the meaning of a verb. How 
may such be parsed ? What distinction should be made in 
the use of and Oh? 






EXERCISE. 

Model. 
Huzza ! he comes. 
Huzza is an interjection, a word used as an exclamation; 
it is independent, according to Eule XVIII. : — 

Interjections have no grammatical relation to other 
words. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Ah me ! how dreadful ! Avaunt ! let the grave 
hide thee. Alas! alas! that great city! Long 



BTJRTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 129 

live Lord Robin ! Huzza ! huzza ! What ! are 
you mad ? Virtue ! how amiable thou art ! Lo ! 
he is here. 

EXPLETIVES. 

Words are sometimes used, for euphony or 
emphasis, with such a construction that they do 
not perform the office of any of the parts of speech : 
such words may be called expletives : therefore, 

An expletive is a word used for euphony or 
emphasis only. 

Expletives used 

s 

FOR EUPHONY. 

There was a stranger here. 

I sit me down a pensive hour to spend. 

FOR EMPHASIS. 

The moon herself is lost in heaven. 
They make even toil to please. 

A word repeated in the same construction is 
an expletive. The repetition is sometimes for 
euphony; as, Hear the bells, how they tinkle, 
tinkle, tinkle, in the icy air of night. At other 
times it is used for emphasis; as, Down, down, 
the tempest plunges on the sea. 

Questions. — What is an expletive? Give examples of 
expletives used for euphony. Of expletives used for em- 
phasis. What is said of a word repeated in the same con- 
struction ? 



130 PROGRESSIVE SERIES, 

EXERCISE. 

Model. 
There are no idlers here. 
There is an expletive, a word used for euphony only, 

EXAMPLES. 

There is no man equal to the task. There was 
a good spring there. Is not some one gently rap- 
ping, rapping, at my chamber door? His teeth 
they chatter, chatter, still. John himself came, 
and even his aged father accompanied him. They 
are tolling, tolling, tolling, in that muffled mono- 
tone. The wide, wide world. Work, work, work, 
in the dull December light; and work, work, 
work, when the weather is warm and bright. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Parse all the icords. 

The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. The soul 
of man is rational and immortal. Thought and 
language act and react upon each other. He bolts 
the door with an iron bolt. That is the one that 
I wanted. A is used before a consonant, and an, 
before a vowel sound. 

Give me a retired life, a peaceful conscience, 
honest thoughts, and virtuous actions, and I can 
pity Caesar. 

The murmur of thy streams, Lora! brings 
back the memory of the past. The sound of thy 
woods, Garmallar ! is lovely in mine ear. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 

Look not mournfully into the past, it comes not 
back again ; wisely improve the present, it is thine ; 
go forth to meet the shadowy future without fear, 
and with a manly heart. 

Happy, thrice happy, he who relies on the 
eternity of the soul; who believes, as the loved 
l ones fall one after another from his side, that they 
, have returned to their native country. 

In yonder grave a Druid lies, 

Where slowly winds the stealing wave : 

The year's best sweets shall duteous rise 
To deck its poet's sylvan grave. 

i 

To purchase heaven has gold the power ? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour ? 
In life can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold ? 

There is a pleasure in the pathless woods; 

There is a rapture on the lonely shore ; 
There is society, where none intrudes, 

By the deep sea, and music in its roar. 



o? 



Let us then be up and doing. 
With a heart for any fate : 

Still achieving, still pursuing, 
Learn to labor and to wait. 



132 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the proper arrangement o: 
words in sentences. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words expressing 
a declaration, an interrogation, a command, or a 
petition. 

The words of a sentence are arranged with re- 
gard to relation, agreement, and government 

Relation is the reference which one word has to 
another in sense. 

Agreement is the similarity of words in their 
modifications. 

Government is the power which one word has 
to modify another. 

Questions. — What is Part Third ? Of what does Syntax; 
treat? What is a sentence? With regard to what are 
the words of a sentence arranged? What is relation?! 
What is agreement ? What is government ? 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 

RULE I. NOMINATIVES. 

The subject of a finite verb is put in the nomina- 
tive case. 

RULE II. — APPOSITION. 

A noun or pronoun in apposition is put in the 
same case as the substantive which it limits. 

RULE III.— POSSESSIVES. 

A noun or pronoun denoting possession is put 
in the possessive case. 



RULE IV. — ABSOLUTE CASE. 

I A noun or pronoun not governed is put in the 
absolute case. 

RULE V. ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives limit substantives. 

RULE VI. PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns agree with their substantives in gender, 
number, and person. 

RULE VII.- — DOUBLE RELATIVES. 

Double relatives supply two cases. 

RULE VIII.— VERBS. 

The finite verb must agree with its subject in 
s person and number. 

!RULE IX. — OBJECTIVES AFTER VERBS. 
The object of a transitive verb is put in the 
objective case. 

12 



134 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

RULE X. — SAME CASES. 

Intransitive and passive verbs have the same 
case after as before them, when both words refer to 
the same thing. 

RULE XI. — INFINITIVES. 

Infinitives and participles relate to nouns or 
pronouns as their subjects. 

RULE XII. — SUBSTANTIVES TAKEN TOGETHER. 

When two or more singular nouns or pronouns 
are taken together, a verb or pronoun to agree 
with them must be plural. 

RULE XIII. — SUBSTANTIVES TAKEN SEPARATELY. 

When two or more singular nouns or pronouns 
are taken separately, a verb or pronoun to agree 
with them must be singular. 



RULE XIV. ADVERBS. 

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

RULE XV. — PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions connect words, and show the rela- 
tion between them. 






RULE XVI. OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The object of a preposition is put in the objective 
case. 

RULE XVII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions unite words, phrases, and clauses. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 

RULE XVIII. INTERJECTIONS, 

Interjections have no grammatical relation to 
other words. 

&EMARKS. 

1. A noun or pronoun, following the conjunction than 
or as, is generally nominative to a verb understood; as, 
James can write tetter than John: i.e. James can write 
better than John can write. He understands it as well 
as I: i.e. He understands it as well as I understand it. 

2. The verbs ask, teach, and tell may have two objects; 
as, He asked me the question. I taught Mm grammar. 
He told me many things. In the passive voice these 
verbs may have an objective case after them; as, He was 
taught grammar. He was asked the question. I was told 
many things. 

3. The verbs which signify to give, take, bring, make, or 
purchase are frequently followed by an objective case 
governed by the preposition understood; as, Give me an 
apple: i.e. Give to me an apple. They took the child 
home : i.e. They took the child to Ms home. He brought me 
a beautiful flower: i.e. He brought to me & beautiful 
flower. I made him a pair of boots : i.e. I made for him a 
pair of boots- He bought his son a new book : i.e. He 
bought for his son a new book. 

4. A noun or pronoun after the verbal noun being is in 
the absolute case ; as, I was sure of its being he. 

5. Some verbal nouns have the property of the transi- 
tive verb, and govern the objective case ; as, His method 
of conducting recitations was good. To avenge an injury- 
places us on a level with our enemy. 

Such in parsing are called transitive verbal nouns. 

6. The verb, to agree with a phrase or clause as its sub- 
ject, must be of the third person singular; as, To be good 
is to be happy. That he is guilty has been clearly proved. 



136 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Questions on Remarks. — What is said of a noun or pro- 
noun following the conjunction than or as? Give examples. 
Tell what verbs are understood after the following final 
nouns or pronouns : He is better than I. I am as good 
as you. John is older than James. James is as old as 
William. 

What verbs may have two objects? What is said of 
their passive form? Give examples. What verbs fre- 
quently have a preposition understood after them? Give 
examples. In what case is a noun or pronoun after the 
verbal noun being? What is said of some verbal nouns? 
Give examples. What are such called in parsing ? What 
is said of a verb which agrees with a phrase or clause for 
its subject? 

TRANSPOSITION. 

The natural order of the elements of a sentence is : — 
1. The adjective. 2. The subject. 3. The verb. 4. The 
object. 5. The adverb; as, Wise kings rule nations pru- 
dently. Coming events cast their shadows before. 

Any order different from the natural is called inverse 
order. 

Transposition is changing the order of the elements. 

NATURAL ORDER. 

Still evening came on now. 

INVERSE ORDER. 

Now came still evening on. 

INVERSE ORDER. 

Here rests his head upon the lap of earth, 
A youth, to fortune and to fame, unknown. 

NATURAL ORDER. 

A youth, unknown to fortune and to fame ; rests his head 
here upon the lap of earth. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 137 



INVERSE ORDER. 



On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow, 
And dark as winter was the flow 
Of Iser, rolling rapidly. 

NATURAL ORDER. 

The untrodden and all bloodless snow lay on Linden, 
when the sun was low, and the flow of Iser, rolling rapidly, 
was dark as winter, 

Inversion occurs more or less in all composition, but it 
is most frequent in poetry. 

SHORT METHOD OF PARSING. 

In the following models, the definitions are omitted; the rules 
also may be omitted, if the pupil is quite familiar with them. 

Model 1. 

Alas! man often mistakes his best interests and departs 
from the path of duty. 

Alas., As an interjection. (Eule XVIII.) 

Man... is a common noun, of the masculine gender, third 
person, and singular number, and in the nomina- 
tive case, being the subject of the verb mistakes. 
(Eule I.) 

Mistakes is an irregular, transitive verb, in the indica- 
tive mode, present tense, and of the third person 
and singular number, to agree with its subject 
man. (Eule VIII.) 

Often is an adverb, and modifies the sense of the verb 
mistakes. (Eule XIV.) 

Sis.... is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, 
third person, and singular number, to agree with 
its antecedent man. (Eule VI.) His is in the 
12* 






138 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 






possessive case, to show its relation to the noun 

interests. (Eule III.) 
Best... is a descriptive adjective, in the superlative degree, 

and relates to the noun interests. (Eule V.) 
Interests is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third 

person, and plural number, and in the objective 

case, being the object of the verb mistakes. (Eule 

And. . ..is a conjunction, and unites clauses. (Eule XYII.) 
Departs is a regular, intransitive verb, in the indicative 

mode, present tense, and of the third person and 

singular number, to agree with he understood for 

its subject. (Eule VIII.) 
From...\& a preposition, and shows the relation between 

departs and path. (Eule XV.) 
The.... is a definitive adjective, and limits the noun path. 

(Eule V.) 
Path is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third 

person, and singular number, and in the objective 

case, being the object of the preposition from. 

(Eule XVI.) 
Of is a preposition, and shows the relation between 

path and duty. (Eule XV.) 
Duty is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third 

person, and singular number, and in the objective 

case, being the object of the preposition of. (Eule 

XVI.) 

Model 2. 

The traveler, seeing the danger, commenced to flee. 

Seeing is an imperfect, transitive participle, and refers to 
the noun traveler for its subject. (Eule XI.) 

To flee is an irregular, intransitive verb, in the infinitive 
mode, present tense, and refers to the noun trav- 
eler for its subject. (Eule XI.) 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 

Model 3. 
To lie is base. 

To lie is a verbal noun, of the neuter gender, third per- 
son, and singular number, and in the nominative 
case being the subject of the verb is. (Eule I.) 

Model 4. 
His method of solving the problem was approved. 

Solving is a transitive verbal noun, of the neuter gender, 
third person, and singular number, and in the 
objective case, being the object of the preposition 
of. (Eule IX.) 

Problem is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third 
person, and singular number, and in the objective 
case, being the object of the transitive verbal 
noun solving. (Remark 5.) 

Model 5. 
That man is fallible is evident. 

That man is fallible is a substantive clause*, of the neuter 
gender, third person, and singular number, and in 
the nominative case, being the subject of the verb 
is, (Eule I.) 

That is a subordinate conjunction, and introduces the 
clause that man is fallible. (Eule XVII. Parse 
each word.) 

Is is an irregular, intransitive verb, in the indicative 

mode, present tense, and of the third person and 
singular number, to agree with the substantive 
clause that man is fallible for its subject. (Eule 
VIII., and Remark 6.) 

*■ s — 

* A substantive clause is a clause having the construction of a noun 
or pronoun. 






140 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



Model 6. 
He was taught grammar. 

He is a personal pronoun, of the masculine gender, third 
person, and singular number, to agree with its 
antecedent understood. (Eule YI.) He is in the 
nominative case, being the subject of the verb was 
taught. (Eule I.) 

Was taught is an irregular, passive verb, in the indicative 
mode, past tense, and of the third person and 
singular number, to agree with its subject he. 
(Eule VIII.) 

Grammar is a common noun, of the neuter gender, third 
person, and singular number, and in the objective 
case, after the verb ivas taught, the passive form 
of the verb to teach. (Remark 2.) 

In the following models, the words commonly den 
nominated compound or double relatives are treated 
as simple relatives, which is probably the more philo- 
sophical method. 

Model 7. 
He studies what is useful. 

What is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third 
person, and singular number,* to agree with 
thing which understood for its substantive (Eule 
VI.) ; it is in the nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb is. (Eule I.) 

What is useful is a substantive clause, of the neuter 
gender, third person, and singular number, and in 
the objective case, being the object of the transi- 
tive verb studies. (Eule IX.) 

* The pronoun what, though often plural in sense, is always singular 
in construction. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 141 

What cannot be cured must be endured. 

What is a relative pronoun, of the neuter gender, third 
person, and singular number, to agree with thing 
which understood for its substantive (Eule VI.) ; 
it is in the nominative case, being the subject of 
the verb can be cured. (Eule I.) 

Can be cured is a regular, passive verb, in the potential 
mode, present tense, and of the third person and 
singular number, to agree with its subject what. 
(Eule VIII.) 

Not.... is an adverb of negation, and modifies the sense of 

the verb can be cured. (Eule XIV.) 
What cannot be cured is a substantive clause, of the 
neuter gender, third person, and singular number, 
and in the nominative case, being the subject of 
the verb must be endured. (Eule I.) 

Must be endured is a regular, passive verb, in the potential 
mode, present tense, and of the third person and 
singular number, to agree with the substantive 
clause what cannot be cured for its subject. (Eule 
VIII., and Remark 6.) 

Whoever sins will suffer.* 
Whoever is a relative pronoun, of the common gender, 
third person, and singular number, to agree with 
person who understood for its substantive (Eule 
VI.) ; it is in the nominative case, being the sub- 
ject of the verb sins. (Eule I.) 

* Will suffer agrees with the substantive clause whoever sins for its sub- 
ject. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

I. 

Flowers bloom. Winds blow. Grass grows. 
Birds fly. Men labor. Snow falls. Lambs play. 
They wrote. He w r alked. You studied. They 
have come. They had come. Will you go ? Shall 



142 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 






he come? He had written. It was found. It 
will be done. They may come. Can he write? 
Pupils should study. It can be done. It could 
have been found. America was discovered. Has 
he arrived. Ellen was talking. We shall have 
been reading. They were singing. I am. He 
was. Time will be. Things have been. They 
are. It will have been. Awake. Study. Write. 

II. 

The river flows. The moon shines. An eagle 
flies. A friend speaks. This man came. All 
men must die. Good children are loved. Wicked 
men suffer. Industrious people prosper. No per- 
son came. Man's works decay. The huntsman's 
horn sounded. The bright sun's rays illuminate. 
Your brother improves. His strength failed. 
Their interests were considered. Ellen's hopes 
vanished. Her head aches. Frederic the king 
ruled. The queen Victoria was esteemed. His 
daughter Sarah sings. The Apostle Paul preached. 
Pompey the general was conquered. Demosthenes, 
the celebrated orator, declaimed. Arnold, the base 
traitor, escaped. Ida, the minister's daughter, has 
returned. Brutus, having spoken, retired. Santa 
Anna, having been conquered, fled. John, being 
disappointed, returned. 

III. 

The girls found violets. The cat catches mice. 
They saw Washington. He bought a farm. The 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 143 

travelers found a resting-place. Good children 
love their parents. The patriot loves his country. 
Does he improve his time? Study your lessons. 
Can he write a letter ? Will you hear me ? They 
study diligently. She was not there. When will 
he be here ? Can he come now ? He may come 
to-morrow. Faithful servants labor attentively. 
Good scholars speak correctly. A very benevolent 
lady resides here. Weak-minded persons change 
continually. 

Gold is precious. Iron is useful. A good book is 
a treasure. Trees are plants. Cafta was a murderer. 
It was John. James was an industrious student. 
Her name is Sarah. Patience is a rare virtue. 
Green is a pleasant color. He may become a great 
man. He was called a philosopher. Pure cold 
water is a delightful beverage. Simon was sur- 
named Peter. Kipe fruit is excellent. He died a 
drunkard. 

IV. 

To see 1 is to believe. To forgive is divine. To 
err is human. I rejoice to hear it. They love to 
write. To be good is to be happy. To suffer is 
the lot of all men. Walking is pleasant exercise. 
We saw our friends coming. He was heard speak- 
ing. I found Susan writing. The man of integ- 
rity is respected. The King of France fled. 
Athens is the capital of Greece. He bade him 
recite his lesson. Let us do our work well. He 
heard the old clock strike the hour of twelve. 






144 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Thomas saw the tree fall. The ancestors of the 
English are generally known by the name of 
Saxons. The bigots of that iron time had called 
his harmless art a crime. A wandering harper, 
scorned and poor, he begged his bread from door to 
door. 

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me 2 your 
ears. Take the child home. 2 Give William 2 the 
book. He brought me 2 a beautiful flower. I 
sold him a valuable farm. Give me the book. 
London, the capital of the British empire, and the 
largest city in the world, is situated on the Thames, 
a river in the southeastern part of England. The 
time having arrived, we commenced our journey. 
Our father being present, we were not afraid. Re- 
ligion, our guide in prosperity, is also our best con- 
solation in adversity. Columbus, having accom- 
plished the object of his voyage, returned to Spain. 
Alas ! those happy days are gone. Providence ! 
how many poor insects of thine are exposed to be 
trodden to death in each path ! 

1 See Model 3, page 139. 

2 See Remark 3, page 135. 

V. 

Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitu- 
tion. The lion and the lamb shall lie down to- 
gether. Industry and perseverance have worked 
wonders. Life, death, and immortality are themes 
of sublime and surpassing interest. Sincerity an 
truth form the basis of every virtue. John o: 



BURTT^S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 14 § 

James must go. The pupils study and recite, 
Read and reflect on all matters of importance. 
Thought and language act and react upon each 
other. We watched and waited by day and by 
night Cyrus conquered Syria and Arabia, The 
soul of man is rational and immortal. They were 
oppressed and plundered by their rulers. 

The wilderness and the solitary place shall be 
glad for them. He acted firmly, but kindly. 
Beautiful and salutary is the sound of a distant 
Sabbath bell in the country. He may go or stay. 
A stream of flame and smoke issued from the 
chimney. The obligation of respect and love for 
parents never ceases. How vain are eloquence 
and poetry, compared with heaven- descended truth! 
Pay supreme and undivided homage to goodness 
( and truth. Benefits should be long and gratefully 
remembered, Grand ideas and principles elevate 
and ennoble the mind. Alas! that folly and false- 
hood should be so hard to grapple with I 1 

1 With is an adverb limiting the verb to grapple. 

VI. 

Harbor no malice in thy heart : it will be a 
'viper in thy bosom. The time has passed, and you 
jdid not improve it. The earth is dark, but the 
I heavens are bright. The heavens declare the glory 
J of God, and the firmament showeth his handiwork. 

You must be diligent, or you will not succeed. 

Brutus loved Caesar much, but he loved Rome 



n 






146 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

more. He stood on an eminence, and glory cov- 
ered him. We must fight, or our liberties are lost. 

The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming in purple and gold. 

St. John says that God is love. The very correct 
remark has been made, that it is a great loss to 
lose an affliction. His grand excellence was this, 
that he was a true man. Seneca tells us that 
there is a settled friendship between God and good 
men. Thou knowest that virtue can never be 
despoiled of its deathless crown. Be on thy guard 
against flattery ; for it is an insidious poison. If 
you would be revenged on your enemies, let your 
life be blameless. The tree will not bear fruit in 
autumn, unless it blossoms in the spring. We 
must lean on the hand of a guide, until we can go 
alone. Wealth is of no real use, except it be well 
employed. 

Avoid rudeness of manners, which must hurt 
the feelings of others. Behold the emblem of thy 
state in flowers, which bloom and die. Happy are 
the people whose history is the most wearisome to 
read. Where your treasure is, there will your 
heart be also. He who made the universe, now 
preserves and governs it. He who teaches, often 
learns himself. Whom ye ignorantly worship, him 
declare I unto you. That the earth is a sphere 
can 1 easily be proved. When he will arrive is un- 
certain. Why he left the city is a mystery. How 
shall we escape is the question. Where he resides 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 147 

cannot be ascertained. 1 Where thou goest I will 
go. 

Are there not seasons of spring in the moral 
world ? And is not the present age one of them ? 
Stones grow; vegetables grow and live; animals 
grow, live, and feel. Philosophy makes us wiser, 
Christianity makes us better, men. Truth will 
pass down in fragments to posterity, but posterity 
will collect and compose them into a whole. To 
rule one's anger is w^ell ; but to prevent it is better. 
You cannot find one better than this. Curiosity 
allures the wise ; vanity, the foolish ; and pleasure, 
both. The Grecians excelled in precepts ; the 
Romans, in examples. Labor brings pleasure; 
idleness, pain. The young are slaves to novelty; 
the old, to custom. Pride goeth before destruc- 
tion, and a haughty spirit before a fall, 

1 See Model 5, page 139. 

VII. 

Speak as you mean, do as you profess, and per- 
form what 2 you promise. Treat whoever comes 
with respect. If thou wouldst know what thou 
art, ascertain what thou canst do. Heaven hides 
from brutes what men, from men what spirits, 
know. Whatsoever he says, observe. He medi- 
tates upon what is profitable. The Lord chastens 
whomsoever he loves. I believe what he says. 
Whosoever runs may read. 

2 See Model 7, page 140. 



148 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

He has what 1 money he wants. 1 Take which- 
ever 2 pen pleases 2 you. 

1 What is a definitive adjective, limiting the noun money. Wants is a 
transitive verb, having which understood for its object. " He has what 
money [which'] he wants." 

2 Whichever is a definitive adjective, limiting the noun pen. The 
subject of pleases is the relative that understood. " Take whichever pen 
[that] pleases you." 

John is older than James. 3 He can write better 
than I. 3 The music was soft as the gentle zephyr. 3 
His face did shine as the sun, and his raiment was 
white as the light. Am I not as good as others ? 
Are you any better than your neighbors ? 

3 See Remark 1, page 135. 

He asked 4 me some questions concerning my 
studies. I told 4 him all that I knew. He was 
sent to an academy, where he was taught 4 writing, 
arithmetic, and other useful branches. I was 
asked this question several times. You were told 
the same thing repeatedly. We have been told 
their destiny and use. 

4 See Remark 2, page 135, and Model 6, page 140. 

Its being I 5 made no difference. I was sure of 
its being he. 5 Yet a few days, and thee the all- 
beholding sun shall see no more in all his course. 
Earth, that nourished thee, shall claim thy growth 
to be resolved to earth again. The ruin of a state 
is generally preceded by a universal degeneracy of 
manners, and a contempt for religion. 

5 See Remark 4, page 135. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 149 

To love 1 your enemies is commanded in the gos- 
pel. Continued practice in solving 1 problems has 
made him quite expert in all mathematical opera- 
tions. Its excesses may be restrained without 
destroying its existence. Receiving goods known 
to be stolen is a criminal offense. They could not 
avoid giving offense. 

We have succeeded in making a beginning. 
Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing 
mischief, cannot be regarded as robbing him. To 
improve your time properly, should be your con- 
stant care. To recite his lessons well, should be 
the desire of every pupil. He who seeks to immor- 
talize his name by disorganizing society and de- 
moralizing the community, will be dissatisfied with 
his own labors, and reap the reward of his iniquity. 

1 See Remark 5, page 135, and Model 4, page 139. 

VIII. 

The 1 more we possess, the more we desire. The 
more I examine the work, the better I like it. I 
like this the 2 best. Sweet is the coming on 3 of 
evening mild. What! 4 can ye lull the winged 
winds asleep ? 5 He went almost 6 to Philadelphia. 

i The — the are correlatives uniting the clauses. 

2 The is an expletive used for euphony. 

3 On is an adverb limiting the verbal noun coming. The verbal noun 
has the construction of the verb and noun, and may be limited by ad- 
verbs and adjectives. 

4 WJiat is an interjection. 

5 Asleep is an adjective relating to the noxm ^winds. 

6 Almost is an adverb limiting the expression to Philadelphia, an ad- 
verbial phrase denoting place. 

13* 



150 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

He remained in London almost 7 a year. He, being 
a worthy man/ was promoted. For who but 
He 9 who arched the skies, could raise the daisy's 
purple bud? All nature is but 10 art, unknown 
to thee. 

7 Almost is an adverb limiting the expression a year [one year), which, 
taken as a unit, is an adverb of time. 

8 Man is in the nominative case after the intransitive verb being. 

9 He is nominative to could raise understood. According to more 
modern writers, the objective case should be used, and but taken as a pre- 
position. 

10 But is an adjective relating to art 

His reputation as a scholar 1 is good. He acted 
as president 2 during the day. He was offered three 
thousand dollars. 3 Man shall not live by bread 
alone. 4 Whether he is rich or poor, makes 6 but 6 
little difference. Not 7 as the conqueror comes, 
they, the true-hearted, came. He painted the 
house green. 8 Genius is the intuitive perception 
of 9 what is; moral sentiment is the feeling of 10 
what ought to be. 

1 Scholar is in the nominative case in apposition with reputation. 

2 President is in the nominative case after the intransitive verb acted. 

3 Dollars is in the objective case after the passive verb was offered. 
The verb offer, like the verbs mentioned in remark second, takes an ob- 
jective case after its passive form. 

4 Alone is an adjective relating to bread. 

5 Makes agrees with the substantive clause whether he is rich or poor 
for its subject. 

6 But is an adverb modifying the adjective little. 

7 Not is an adverb modifying the meaning of the adverbial clause as 
the conqueror comes. 

8 Green is an adjective relating to the noun house. 

9 Of is a preposition showing the relation between perception and the 
substantive clause what is. 

10 Of is a preposition showing the relation between feeling and the sub- 
stantive clause what ought to be. 



BURT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 151 

RULES OF SYNTAX, 
WITH EXAMPLES, EEMARKS, AND FALSE SYNTAX. 

RULE I. — -NOMINATIVES. 

The subject a of finite verb is put in the nomi- 
native case. 

Examples. — He writes. / study. They learn. 

We may go. 

REMARK. 

All verbs are finite except such as are in the infinitive or 
participial mode. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Models. 

Him and I study, is incorrect; it should be, He and I 
study : him is in the objective case, and it should be in the 
nominative case, because it is one of the subjects of the 
verb study. (Eule L Repeat the rule.) 

Who came first? Me. The expression is incorrect; it 
should be, Who came first? I: me is in the objective case, 
and it should be in the nominative case, because it is the 
subject of the finite verb .came understood. (Eule I. Re- 
peat the rule.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Her and me write well. Him and them trav- 
eled together. Them and us are going. John 
and me live on the same street. The girls and us 
visited the eity. Thee must try to speak correctly. 
May him and me take a walk ? Are you and her 
acquainted with them ? Me and you know better. 
What are them and their friends doing ? She is 
taller than him. They know more than me. You 
are as studious as us. Her and me understand 



152 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

grammar as well as him. I knew it before them. 
I can write faster than her. 

Who is there ?. Me. Who said so? Her. Who 
will go? Him. Who did the work? Us. Whom 
do you say was there t Us girls are going. Him 
whom you dislike is present. Her whom you say 
was here, has left the city. Mary saw it as well 
as me. None knew it but him. They, and not us, 
were there. Them that despise me shall be lightly 
esteemed. Here is none but thee and I. Whom 
do you think will be the successful candidate ? 

RULE, II. APPOSITION. 

A noun or pronoun in apposition* is put in 
the same case as the substantive which it limits. 

Examples. — Ye men of Israel. Thou traitor. 
We men of science labor for the good of pos- 
terity. They spoke to us children. 

REMARKS. 

1. A noun may be in apposition with a clause or part of 
a sentence; as, He lent me his assistance, a kindness which 
I shall not forget. He recovered, a result which was not 
expected. 

2. A noun or pronoun in apposition is sometimes singular 
when the principal term is plural; as, They departed every 
man to his home. We love each other: i.e. "We each love 
the other. In the first example, man is in apposition with 
they. In the second, each is in apposition with we. 

* The word apposition means adding to. A noun or pronoun in appo- 
sition is added to the principal term to explain or define it more fully ; 
as, John Smith the carpenter: here carpenter is added to the prin- 
cipal term to explain which John Smith is meant. 



BFRTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 153 

Model. 
We saw your brother, he who lives in the city, is incor- 
rect ; it should be, Mm who lives in the city : he is in the 
nominative case, and it should be in the objective, because 
it is in apposition with brother y which is in the objective 
case. (Eule II. Bepeat the rule.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Do you know that gentleman, he who stands by 
the window ? We honor the soldiers of the Revo- 
lution, they who fought for freedom. Mary the 
seamstress, her who works for us, is an industrious 
girl. It was John, him that wrote the letter. I 
spoke of Noah Webster, he who wrote the diction- 
ary. I suppose it to be Mr. Jones, he who lives on 
Penn Street. Who built this house ? Henry Smith, 
him who went to California. Will you act thus 
towards me, I who have so often assisted you? 

RULE III. POSSESSIVES. 

A nowfi or pronoun denoting possession is put 
in the possessive case. 

Examples. — Marys book. Your pen. His slate, 
Ladies bonnets. I did not know of your being 
present. 

REMARKS. 

1. Norms in apposition usually have the sign annexed 
to the last; as, John the Baptist's head; Johnson the 
carpenter's shop; but if the limited word is omitted, the 
sign may be annexed to either; as, I left the book at 
Smith's the bookseller/ or at Smith the, bookseller's. 

2. When there are several nouns in apposition, or when 
one or more phrases are added in explanation, the sign may 



154 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

foe annexed to the first ; as, These Psalms are David's, the 
king, priest, and prophet of the people. I bought the desk 
at Lyndsay's, the cabinet-maker on Liberty Street. 
Note. — These expressions are inelegant, and should be avoided. 

3. Two or more nouns in the possessive case have the 
sign annexed to the last only, if the limited word denotes 
an object possessed in common ; as, Smith and Brown's 
store. William and Mary's College. But if the limited 
word denotes an object possessed separately, the sign must 
be annexed to each; as, Adams' and Jackson's adminis- 
tration. 

4. The limited word must not be made plural because 
the possessive is plural, unless the sense requires it; as, 
Our health is good, and not, Our healths are good. 

5. Verbal nouns, like others in the same construction, 
are preceded by the possessive case; as, I am tired of 
his talking, not, I am tired of him talking. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model. 
This is your fathers house is incorrect; fathers should 
have the possessive sign, because it has the possessive rela- 
tion to the noun house. (Eule III.) 

Let the pupil revise the rules for the possessive case, on page 58. 
. EXAMPLES. 

The boys lessons are not learned. We use Os- 
goods Readers. The ladys dress was bought at 
Browns store. He had grace for others sins, but 
none for theirs. Teach me to feel anothers woe. 
Moses rod was turned into a serpent. He cast 
himself down at Jesus feet. Mens hats are sold 
at Stewarts. Mans chief good is an upright mind. 
John Smith his book. Mary Jones her book. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 155 

Remark 2—3. 

These works are Bayard Taylors, the poet's and 
traveller's. I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old 
patron's and benefactor's. 

I visited Henry's and Mary's teacher. Little's 
and Co.'s store is on Fourth Street. It is north of 
Mason's and Dixon's line. This hat is John or 
James's. Cain and Abel's occupation were not the 
same. There is no difference between Mary and 
Ellen's age. 

Remark 4 — 5. 

Take care of your healths. For our parts, we 
are satisfied. He did it for their sakes. We 
should not murmur at our fates. Our lots have 
not been unpleasant. 

You being present did not prevent him behav- 
ing badly. Did they hear of him going ? He was 
averse to the nation involving itself in war. She 
being rich did not make her happy. You saying 
so did not prove it to be true. I do not like him 
spending his money so carelessly. He spoke of 
me studying the languages. I approved of them 
speaking frankly. 

RULE IV. CASE ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or pronoun not governed is put in the 
absolute case. 

Examples. — He approaching, they fled. Plato, 
thou reasonest well. wonderful man! He died 
last year. Its being /made no difference. 



156 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

REMARKS. 

1. A noun is put in the absolute case before a participle, 
by direct address, by exclamation, by ellipsis, and after the 
verbal noun being. 

2. The absolute case has generally the same form as the 
nominative, except when it follows the interjection ah: 
then it has the objective form; as, Ah ! me. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Models. 

Sim being seen, they fled, is incorrect ; it should be, Se 
being seen, they fled: Mm is in the objective case, and it 
should be in the absolute case, because it is before the par- 
ticiple being seen, and independent of the rest of the sen- 
tence. (Eule IV.) 

Its being me astonished them, is incorrect ; it should be, 
Its being /astonished them: me is in the objective case, 
and it should be in the absolute case after the verbal noun 
being. (Eule IV.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Him having arrived, the meeting was organized. 
Its being me need make no difference. We could 
not be sure of its being him. Us having returned, 
they rejoiced. Oh happy us ! who are thus blessed. 

RULE V.— ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives limit substantives. 

Examples. — Good men are happy. To lie is base. 
That he is a good speaker is evident. 

Note. — A substantive is a noun or pronoun, or a phrase 
or clause having the construction of a noun. 

remarks. 
1. Adjectives which denote number must agree in num- 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 157 

ber with their substantives; as, One man. Five pounds. 
This kind. These kinds. 

2. An adjective sometimes limits another adjective, and 
the two, taken together, limit the noun ; as, Dark blue 
cloth. Deep black clouds. 

3. An adjective may limit an adjective and noun taken 
together as one term; as, The first two verses. Every ten 
miles. 

4. Adjectives should be so placed as to limit the term 
intended ; as, A glass of cool water,, not, A cool glass of water. 

5. The pronoun them should not be used as an adjective; 
as, Bring me those books, not, Bring me them books. 

6. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper; 
as, Worser. Most unkindest. 

7. When objects are contrasted, this and these refer to the 
nearer, or last mentioned, that and those to the more remote^ 
or first mentioned ; as, Riches and poverty are both temp- 
tations : that tends to excite pride; this, discontent. 

8. An adjective, and not an adverb, is used to express 
quality ; as, We feel warm, not, We feel warmly. 

Quality is expressed by adjectives; manner, by adverbs. 

Adjectives. Adverbs. 

Men grow old. The boys grow rapidly. 

She looks cold. She looked coldly on him. 

The statement seems correct. It was done correctly. 
He stands firm. He adheres firmly to his pur- 

pose. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Jlodels. 

The wall is thirty foot long, is incorrect; it should be, The 
wall is thirty feet long : foot is singular, and it should be 
plural, because the adjective thirty is plural. (Repeat Re- 
mark 1.) 

He had a new pair of shoes, is incorrect ; it should be, 
He had a pair of new shoes : new should be placed next 
the term shoes, which it limits. {Repeat Remark 4.) 

14 






158 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

EXAMPLES. 
Remark 1. 
I paid four shilling for six pound of sugar. He 
bought five barrel of flour. She is twelve year 
old. He paid six pound for ten bushel of corn. 
These kind of books is not profitable. I do not 
like those sort of people. He had two pair of 
shoes. We walked four mile. Those molasses 
came from New Orleans. The lesson is on page 
twenty-five. 

Remark 4 — 5. 

Mary bought a fine piece of cloth and a new 
pair of gloves. He bought an old span of horses 
and a new set of harness. He had a ripe basket 
of fruit. He sold a valuable tract of land. 

Give me them books. Them men spoke to me. 

Remark 6. 
We live in a more pleasanter situation. This 
was the most unkindest cut of all. The Most 
Highest governs the universe. After the most 
straitest sect of our religion, I lived a Pharisee. 
The king is the chiefest man in the nation. He 
possessed a more superior intellect. 

Remark 8. 

This plant grows wildly in Europe. Satin feels 
very smoothly. This expression sounds harshly. 
Open the door widely. The fruit tastes sourly. 
The sun shines brightly. They looked pleasantly, 



J 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 159 

and must have felt happily. He walks very 
straightly. The rose smells sweetly. 

ARTICLES. 
The definitive adjectives, a, an, and the, are 
called articles. The is the definite, and a or an, 
the indefinite article. 

REMARKS. 

1. When the indefinite article is required, a is used be- 
fore words which commence with a consonant sound, and 
an, before words which commence with a vowel sound; as, 

j An eagle is a large bird. 

2. When two or more adjectives relate to the same ob- 
ject, the article is not repeated ) as, A black and white 
cow : i.e. One cow having black and white spots. 

When two or more adjectives relate to different objects, 
I the article is generally repeated ; as, A black and a white 
| cow : i.e. two cows, one black and the other white. 

3. The definite article is sometimes used for emphasis or 
euphony, in which case it may be parsed as an expletive ; 

; as, I admire this the most of all. 

4. The indefinite article is sometimes placed before a 
| plural adjective; as, A few days. A hundred men. In 
i this case, the two may be taken together as one adjective, 
.( limiting the noun; as, A few days: i.e. one few days. A 
I hundred men : i.e. one hundred men. 

J FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples. 

He was a good and a kind parent. Jane has a 

1 large and small grammar. A red and black flag 

(were both displayed. A black and white ox were 

\ yoked together. I understand both the old and new 

method. Does he live on the right hand or left. 



160 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

RULE VI. — PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns must agree with their substantives 
in gender, person, and number. 

Examples. — John visited his friends who live in 
the city. The ladj sold the watch which had been 
presented to her. Ye, therefore, who love mercy, 
teach your sons to love it too, 

REMARKS. 

1. When antecedents taken together differ in person, a 
plural pronoun representing them agrees with the first per- 
son in preference to the second or third, and with the second 
In preference to the third; as, You and I learn our lessons. 
He and you do your duty. 

2. When substantives in the same construction differ in 
person, the third person should be named before the second 
or first, and the second before the first; as, John and you 
are wanted. He spoke to you or me. 

3. If the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the 
Idea of unity, the pronoun must be neuter singular ; as, 
The school is good, and its teachers competent. But if 
the noun conveys the idea of plurality, the pronoun should 
be plural ; as, The people will make their voice heard. 

4. When the antecedent denotes a person, and is of the 
common gender, singular number, the pronoun should be 
masculine singular ; as, Every person should do his duty, 
not, Every person should do their duty. 

5. The relative who is applied to persons and to objects 
personified; which, to things and brutes, to collective nouns 
of unity, and, as an interrogative, to persons. The man who 
came. The fox who spoke first. The tree which fell 

Which is the person ? 

6. That is generally used instead of who or which after 
very, same, all, an adjective in the superlative degree, the 



BUKTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 161 

interrogative who, a collective noun of unity, a joint refer- 
ence to different genders or species, and where the pro- 
priety of who or which is doubtful; as, He is the same 
person that we saw yesterday. All that I have, I give unto 
you. Who that sees the evil, can say this ? The men and 
things that we saw in the city. The nation that fears the 
Lord will be prosperous. 

7. The pronoun what should not be used for the conjunc- 
tion that; as, I do not know but what I will go : it should be ; 
I do not know but that I will go. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model 
Let every pupil obey their teacher, is incorrect. It 
should be, Let every pupil obey his teacher : their is plural, 
and it should be singular, because its antecedent pupil is 
singular. (Eule YI. Repeat the rule, and Remark 4.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Every one should do their duty. If any person 
doubts this statement, let them inquire and satisfy 
themselves. Each member of the class brought 
their book with them. A person who was present 
said that they knew him well. The person who 
told me the story desired that their name might not 
be mentioned. The news has arrived, and they are 
favorable. Each of us had more than we wanted. 
Let every one of you attend to your own affairs. 
The summons was received, but they were not 
obeyed. Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put 
them upon Jacob. Every heart knows their own 
sorrows. No person can tell what they may be. 

14* 



162 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Remark 3. 
The crowd continued to increase, until they 
numbered many thousands. This society is well 
organized, and their rules are excellent. The 
court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise. This 
flock had lost their shepherd. The army had lost 
many of their best officers. The convention has 
assembled, and they will continue in session several 
days. The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as its 
chief good. The congregation listened attentively 
to its pastor. 

Remarks 5, 6, 7. 

The lady which you have seen resides in this city. 
The persons which committed the deed have fled. 
There was a certain householder which planted a 
vineyard. That is the vice, whom I hate. The 
nation who has a good ruler is happy. The com- 
mittee who was appointed yesterday will meet 
to-day. 

He is the best musician whom I ever heard. 
You are the same person whom I met yesterday. 
They were the first who entered. All which was 
said could not move him. He told us of the men 
and things which he had seen. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

They had no doubt but what he was guilty. I 
did not know but what it might be done. You do 
not know but what the report is true. 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAiMMAR. 163 

RULE VII. DOUBLE RELATIVES. 

Double relatives supply two cases. 

examples. — I know what he said. Whoever does 
no good does harm. 

Note. — These words may be considered simple relatives, and Rule VII. 
omitted. (Seepage 140.) 

RULE VIII. AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. 

The finite verb must agree with its subject in 
person and number. 

Examples. — I learn. Thou learnest. He learns. 
The boys study. Henry studies. • 

REMARKS. 

1. When a, collective noun conveys the idea of unity, 
the verb to agree with it must be singular ; as, The con- 
vention has assembled. 

But if the noun conveys the idea of plurality, the verb 
must be plural; as, The people are dissatisfied with this law. 

Note. — A collective noun, unless it clearly suggests the idea of unity, 
requires the verb to be plural. 

2. In the phrase as appears, the verb agrees with it under- 
stood, and is therefore always of the third person singular. 

In the phrase as follows, as is a relative agreeing with a 
singular or plural antecedent, and the verb is varied in 
number accordingly; as, The discourse was as follows. His 
remarks were as follow. 

3. When the nominative is a phrase or clause, the verb 
must be of the third person singular; as, To lie is base. 
That he has done his duty is evident. 

4. The pronoun you, though often singular in sense, 
always requires that the verb which agrees with it shall 
be plural. 



164 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model. 
The boys has studied their lessons, is incorrect. It 
should be, The boys have studied their lessons : has studied 
is of the singular, and it should be of the plural number, 
because its nominative boys is plural. (Kule YIII.) 

EXAMPLES. 

The pupils of this school learns well. There's 
two pencils on the desk. The health of my friends 
are good. The news have come. The summons 
were not disobeyed. There are a great variety of 
tastes among individuals. Neither of his brothers 
were there. What have become of your friends? 
There is more than one error in his statement. 
The teacher with all her pupils were present. Has 
the workers of iniquity no knowledge ? Was the 
lessons well studied ? One of the vowels are silent. 
What books have each of the scholars ? Adjectives 
limits substantives. The house, with the adjoin- 
ing grounds, have been sold. 

One of the injured men have since died. Thou 
knowest all things, and will judge every man ac- 
cording to his works. There was, notwithstanding 
this circumstance, no hopes of success. The pro- 
priety of these measures are doubtful. The people 
that lives near us is preparing to remove. In him 
centres all our best affections. He was one of those 
persons that complains much for trifles. One of 
the cities which was built still remain. Whence 
cometh these mighty armies? Must I, that has 



burtt's English grammar. 165 

hitherto been faithful, now betray my trust ? Thou, 
that has thyself erred, should have charity for the 
failings of others. The ship with all its crew were 
lost. 

Remarks 1 — 4. 

The school have assembled. Congress are in 
session. The convention were large. The society 
meet to-night. The synod have adjourned. The 
conference adjourn to-morrow. The public gen- 
erally is well pleased. The committee differs with 
regard to this matter. The council is divided in 
their opinions. 

You was very busy. Where was you? Was 
you taking a walk ? Was you at school yesterday? 
What was you doing while we was absent? 

RULE IX. OBJECTS OF VERBS. 

The object of a transitive verb is put in the 
objective case. 

Examples. — They saw John and me. Wham did 
you see? They knew us. I found him writing a 
i letter. 

REMARKS. 

The transitive verbs lay, set, and raise, should not be used 
for the intransitive verbs lie, sit, and rise. 

Lay means to place. Lie, to rest horizontally. 

Set means to put. Sit, to be seated. 

Eaise means to elevate. Rise, to get up. 

The verb set is used intransitively when it denotes to 
down or disappear; as, The sun sets. 



166 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model, 
They saw Mary and J, is incorrect; it should be, They 
saw Mary and me : 7 is in the nominative case, and it should 
be in the objective, because it is one of the objects of the 
verb saw. (Eule IX.) 

EXAMPLES. 

You know she and I. Susan wanted Ellen and 
I to write. Let you and I study our lessons. I re- 
quested he and you to visit my sister and I. Who 
do you want ? Who did you see ? Thou only have 
I chosen. They who you met are our friends. 
He and they we know ; but who are you ? You 
should punish him who committed the offence, and 
not I, who am innocent. Who should I meet but 
John ? Who do you take to be so foolish ? Who, 
not having seen, we love. Vain pomp and glory 
of this world, I hate ye. They who goodness has 
exalted, we should respect. Ye who were dead 
hath he quickened. Who did they appoint ? He 
who you recommended. They that honor me will 
I honor. 

REMARK. 

Model. 
Your book lays on the table, is incorrect ; it should be, 
Tour book lies on the table : the transitive verb lay, which 
means to place, should not be used for the intransitive verb 
lie, which means to rest horizontally. 

EXAMPLES. 

The river is raising. The price of flour has 
raised. May I set beside him? Walk in and set 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 167 

down. Let us set here a short time. The desk 
has always set in that part of the room. They 
were just setting down when I came in. They 
were in the habit of setting and talking awhile. 
It is wrong to set and do nothing useful. We 
have laid late this morning. He laid ill for a long 
time. His farm lays near mine. The book is lay- 
ing on the table. He lays at rest in the old church- 
yard. I saw a dark object laying on the floor. 
The land has laid 'idle for years. You may 
rise that window. She is sitting the table. Did 
you sit the copies ? Lie the pencil on the desk. 
The shower has lain the dust. He sat himself 
down. Lie the book on the table, and let it lay 
there. Let him set there, if he will. They 
shall raise from their slumbers. They shall lay 
forever, unnoticed and forgotten. She sa.t a chair 
for him to set upon. 



RULE X. — THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 

Intransitive and passive verbs have the same 
case after as before them, when both words refer 
to the same thing. 

Examples. — It is he. Who is it ? I took it to 
be her. He was called John. The question is, 
Can they do it ? 

REMARKS. 

1. The noun or pronoun which follows the intransitive 
or passive verb is generally in the nominative case, and it 



168 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

is called the predicate nominative; as. It is I. He was the 
man. He died a Christian. 

2. The infinitive mode may be followed by the objective 
case ; as, I knew it to be him. I took him to be an honest 
man. 

3. The predicate nominative is generally placed after the 
verb; as, John was a minister] but it may precede the verb; 
as, James was his name : i.e. His name was James. Who are 
you? i.e. You are who? 

Model. 
It was them, is incorrect; it should be, it was they: them 
is in the objective case, and it should be in the nominative 
case, because it follows the intransitive verb was, and refers 
to the same thing as the subject it. (Eule X.) 

It is her. Was it them? It could not have 
been him. It was me. It might have been her. 
If I were him, I would go. I am sure it was not 
them. It was her that did it, and not me. You 
would have gone too, if you had been him. We 
thought it was thee. I took it to be she. Did you 
know it to be he ? Whom do men say that I am ? 
Whom do you think they are ? Whom do you 
suppose she is ? He took it to be I, but it was not 
me. He is the man whom you said it was. Can 
you tell whom that girl is? She is the person 
whom I understood it was. Is it not her whom 
you thought it was ? Let her be whom she may, I 
shall assist her. We understood it to be thou. 

RULE XI. INFINITIVES. 

Infinitives and participles relate to nouns and 
pronouns as their subjects. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 169 

Examples. — He wishes to go. It is not con- 
venient for me to ivrite. We heard the clock 
strike. John, walking out, met his friend. He 
died respected and honored. 

REMARK. 

To, the sign of the infinitive, "is omitted after the active 
voice of the verbs bid, dare, make, see, hear, feel, let, &c. ; as ; 
I heard him read. I bade them stay. 

RULE XII. SUBSTANTIVES TAKEN TOGETHER. 

^ When two or more singular nouns or pro- 
nouns are taken together, a verb or pronoun, to 
agree with them, must be plural. 

Examples. — -Charles and Henry study their les- 
sons. He and I recite our lessons at the same time. 

REMARK. 

Substantives taken together are generally connected by 
and, expressed or understood. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model. 

The boy and girl writes well, is incorrect; it should be, 
The boy and girl write well : writes is of the singular num- 
ber, and it should be of the plural, to agree with its subjects 
boy and girl taken together. (Kule XII.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Mary and Ellen intends to go with us. Time 
and tide waits for no man. The gentleman and his 
son was killed. The lady and her friend who was 
visiting us has gone away. Temperance and ex- 
ercise preserves health. My cousin and I am 

15 



170 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

visiting the city. Where is your book and slate ? 
How is your father and mother? What is latitude 
and longitude? Your desk and mine is placed 
together. Was the house and lot sold to-day? 
There is a truth and power in his words which is 
surprising. My flesh and my heart faileth. The 
strength of his mind and the goodness of his heart 
gives him success. What courage and what per- 
severance was there displayed ! To profess regard 
and to act differently marks a base mind. To be 
good and to seem good is different things. In 
unity consists our welfare and security. In thee is 
our hope and trust. Treachery and cowardice 
may injure us, but it can not finally prevail. On 
what island is England, Scotland, and Wales? 

RULE XIII. SUBSTANTIVES TAKEN SEPARATELY. 

When two or more singular nouns or pro- 
nouns are taken separately, a verb or pronoun, 
to agree with them, mast be singular. 

Examples. — Either Mary or Jane has gone. John 
or Henry was there. Neither the boy nor his brother 
has come. 

REMARKS. 

1. Substantives are taken separately by the use of or, nor, 
as well as, and also. Singular nouns connected by and, and 
preceded by each, every, or no, are also taken separately; as, 
Bach tree and each leaf speaks with eloquence. Every eye 
and every heart was joyful. 

2. When subjects are connected by the use of but not, and 
not, &c. ? the verb agrees with the subject of which it is 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 171 

affirmed, and is understood to the other; as ; John, and not 
James, was there. Not a load voice, but strong proofs, 
produce conviction. 

3. When the nominatives are of different numbers, the 
verb agrees with the one next it, and the plural nominative 
should be placed next the verb 5 as, Charles or his brothers 
are going. 

4. If the nominatives taken separately, are of different 
persons, the verb agrees with the one next it; as, You or I" 
am wrong. He or you were there. But it would be better 
to express the verb in connection with each nominative; 
as, You are wrjpng, or I am. He was there, or you were. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model. 
Our happiness or misery depend upon ourselves, is incor- 
rect; it should be, Our happiness or misery depends upon 
ourselves : depend is of the plural number, and it should be 
of the singular, to agree with its subjects happiness and 
misery taken separately. (Bule XIII.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Jane or her sister have come. Neither the lady 
nor her child were injured. A beautiful poem or 
picture elevate and refine the mind. There were 
neither comfort nor luxury in his humble dwelling. 
Pride, envy, or malice have wrought this ruin. 
Have John or his father arrived? There are in 
some minds neither knowledge nor understanding. 
Either James or William have neglected what was 
told them. Neither Claudius nor Nero were be- 
loved by their subjects. Every day and every 
hour have their own lessons of wisdom. Every 
man, woman, and child were taken. Every 
thought, every word, and every action J»«w» *JW~ 



172 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

bearing on our future destiny. Each leaf and each 
blade of grass speak of the Creator's wisdom. No 
hope and no comfort dwell there. Charity for the 
errors of mankind, as well as an upright life, 
mark the Christian's character. 

Remarks 2, 3, 4. 

Economy, and not avarice, govern his house- 
hold. Not pride, but goodness, were seen in her 
actions. I, and not you, were there. We, and not 
he, has done this. 

You or he is going. Either Henry or I is to 
blame. Neither he nor you has done right. 

The president or his advisers is responsible. 
Either the people or their pastor were wrong. 
John or his brothers has performed the work. He 
or they was in error. 

RULE XIV. ADVERBS. 

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

Examples. — He writes very well, reads correctly, 
and is remarkably diligent. 

REMARKS. 

1. Two negatives should not be used to express a nega- 
tion; as, I could not wait no longer : it should be, I could 
wait no longer. 

2. No should not be used for not to modify a verb; as ; 
Will you go or no ? It should be, Will you go or not? 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 173 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model. 
He talks rapid, is incorrect; it should be, he talks rapidly: 
rapid is an adjective, and should not be used to modify the 
sense of a verb. (Eule XIY.) 

EXAMPLES. 

She dresses neat. They walk slow. You do 
not speak correct. He writes too rapid. The les- 
son was recited admirable. They were near frozen. 
That child does not speak plain. The speaker was 
exceeding prosy. The man was very near killed 
by the collision. They can do the work easy 
enough. She is remarkable handsome. John 
reads good and writes astonishing well. Do not 
act so reckless. The house was furnished com- 
fortable, if not elegant. The audience listened 
I very attentive. He acted much wiser than the 
others. I cannot think so mean of him. These 
'appear to be finished the neatest. They went 
(agreeable to their promise. She dresses suitable to 
her circumstances. 

Remarks 1 — 2. 
I have not got no pen. I never studied no 
•grammar. Do not say nothing to no one. No- 
rthing never can justify envy. I will not by no 
imeans be guilty of such conduct. I never liked 
neither him nor his opinions. I cannot hardly be- 

fieve that the report was true. I. cannot scarcely 
ell whether he will write or not. 
Will you go or no? Did he say so or no? 



174 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

RULE XV. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions connect words and show the re- 
lation be&ioeen them. 

Examples. — He went from Pittsburg to Cincin- 
nati. The book is on the table. His hat is under 
his arm. 

REMARKS. 

1. Of the two terms connected by a preposition, the 
latter term is always a substantive, and the former may be 
a noun, a pronoun, a verb, or an adjective; as, The House 
of Lords. Which of you will go? He traveled through 
Italy. Socrates was famous for wisdom. 

2. The preposition should express the relation intended; 
as, I differ from you (not with you). They went into the 
house (not in the house). 

3. At is used before names of houses, villages, and foreign 
cities; as, He boards at the National. We live at Mays- 
ville. He stayed some time at Paris. 

In is used before names of countries, and of large cities 
not foreign ; as, in France, in Eussia, in Pittsburg. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model. 

He went above stairs, is incorrect; it should be, He went 
up stairs : because up best expresses the relation intended. 
(Repeat Remark 2.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Remark 2—3. 
This is different to yours. I have a friend in 
whom I rely. You are engaged with a great 
work. Be reconciled with thy friend. Your prin- 
ciples cannot be reconciled to your practice. I 
have profited from your advice. Divide the money 



BURTT ? S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 175 

among the two men. You may confide on me. 
He has a great abhorrence to such conduct. 

Pie boards in the St. Lawrence. We live in 
Paris. You reside in Constantinople. He was 
living at New Orleans. 

RULE XVI. — OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The object of a preposition is put in the ob- 
jective case. 

Examples. — It is for me and thee. He spoke 
unto them. With vjhom do you live ? 

REMARK. 

In general, the preposition should not be separated from 
an interrogative or a relative pronoun which it governs; 
as, Whom did you sj)eak to f it should be, To whom did 
you speak ? 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model. 
Who do you live with ? is incorrect ; it should be, With 
whom do you live? who is in the nominative case, and it 
should be in the objective case, because it is the object of 
the preposition with. (Eule .XVI.) 

EXAMPLES. 

That book is for John and I. Between you and 
.she there should be no secrets. She sat near 
Mary and I. Give Henry and he the book. To 
lye who suffer this is important. Who are you 
speaking to? Who did you vote for? Who did 
jyou give that book to? It makes no difference to 
you and I. Who does the book belong to ? 



I 



176 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Whom did you think of? Which will you 
write to ? 

RULE XYII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions unite words, phrases, or clauses. 

Examples.— James and Joseph study. He will 
return in the morning or at evening. I will go if 
you will stay. 

EEMARKS. 

1. Some conjunctions have their corresponding conjunc- 
tions, and taken together are called correlatives ; as ; 

Though requires yet ; as, Though deep, yet clear. 

Whether — or; as, Whether he wrote or not. 

Either — or ; as, Either you or I will go. 

Neither — nor ; as, He can neither read nor write. 

As — as ; as, He is as* good as his brother. 

So — as ; as, Emma is not so* tall as Mary. 

Both — and; as, Both the quick and the dead. 

So — that ; as, I am so* tired, that I can scarcely walk. 

Note. — The words marked with a * are adverbs. 

2. After the comparative degree, and after other, else, 
and rather, which have the sense of comparatives, than is 
used to introduce the latter term of the comparison; as, 
He is a better soldier than I. It is no other than he. He 
would rather go than stay. What else did you expect 
than this ? 

3. When a part of a sentence is common to two other 
parts connected, it should be equally adapted to each ; as, 
He is as talented, but not so studious as his brother. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model 

He will neither go or stay, is incorrect ; it should be, He 
will neither go nor stay : nor, and not or, should be used as 
the correlative of neither. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 177 

EXAMPLES. 

Remarks 1, 2, 

You will neither study, or permit him to study. 
They will neither go, or stay. 

I have no other hope but this. I would rather 
go as stay. What else did he expect but disgrace? 
It was no other but his father. This is nothing else 
but treason. Have you no other books except these ? 
He no sooner sees him, but he runs to embrace him. 

Model. 
I always have, and always shall be of this opinion, is 
incorrect ) it should be, I always have been, and I always 
shall be of this opinion : because the common part, of this 
opinion, is not adapted to the first part connected, for we 
cannot say with propriety, I always have of this opinion, 

Remark 3. 
Teaching always has, and always will be lauda- 
ble. He has made some alterations and additions 
to the work. This custom always has, and 
always will be admired. He is younger, but not so 
active as his friend. She is as old, or even older 
than Susan. His intentions might, and perhaps 
were good. His first proposal was essentially 
different and inferior, to the second. They differ, 
and contend against each other. 

RULE XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections have no grammatical dependence 
upon other words. 

Examples. — Alas! unhappy man. Grave! 



178 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

where is thy victory? Death! where is thy 
sting ? 

REMARKS ON VERBS. 

1. The principal verb which follows the auxiliaries have 
and be, should have the form of the perfect participle; as, 
They had gone; not, They had went. The book is torn; 
not, The book is tore. 

2. The perfect participle must not be used for the past 
tense : we should say, I saw him ; not, I seen him. He did 
it ; not, He done it. 

3. An intransitive verb should not have the passive form : 
we should say, They have perished ; not, They are perished. 
They have fled; not, They are fled. They have gone; not, 
They are gone.* 

4. That which is always true, should be expressed by the 
present tense; as, He proved that water is an elastic fluid; 
or, He proved water to be an elastic fluid ; not, He proved 
that water was an elastic fluid. 

5. When the subjunctive mode denotes present or past 
time, it should have the same form as the indicative; as, 
If I am rightly informed; not, If I be rightly informed. 
If he was there, I did not see him ; not, If he were there, I 
did not see him. 

6. When the subjunctive mode denotes future time, the 
elliptical form may be used; as, If he study, he will im- 
prove. If he be here to-morrow, I will see him. But it 
is better to express the auxiliaries; as, If he should study, 
he will improve. If he should be here to-morrow, I will see 
him. 

7. In the hypothetical form of the subjunctive mode, the 
verb were is frequently used with a singular nominative; 

* This expression is sometimes used by good writers, but it is contrary 
to the principles of the language. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 179 

as, If he were a better man, I should like him better. Were 
he more studious, he would improve faster. 

Note. — For important information relative to the subjects presented in 
Remarks 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, the student is referred to the introduction to Web- 
ster's Unabridged Dictionary, pages 52-55. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Model 
He had went, is incorrect ; it should be, He had gone. {Be- 
jpeat Remark 1.) 

EXAMPLES. 

Remark 1. 
The sun has arose. You have became indus- 
trious. Thev have eat their dinner. John has fell 
and broke his arm. Mary has just came. He 
was nearly froze. They had went to the country. 
We had wrote the letter beTore that event took 
place. He was took very ill. That book is 
tore. Her very name is forgot. He had ran a 
mile before he was overtook. He has been for- 
sook by his most intimate friends. The tree was 
shook by the wind. The cloth has been wove and 
wore. The letter wrote by my brother has came. 
Having saw him, I was contented. I have threw 
it away. They have did their examples in Arith- 
metic. He was drove to desperation. The bird 
has flew away. 

Remark 2. 
I seen him when he done it. He begun to write. 
He run very fast. They come in late yesterday. 
He drunk at the fountain of knowledge. The 



180 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

scholars done well. John seen the elephant. He 
afterwards become a good scholar. The plants 
growed rapidly. He done it, for I seen him. 

Remark 3. 

The heathen are perished out of the land. I 
only am escaped to tell thee. Israel is fled before 
the Philistines. He found that the empress was 
departed. When they were arrived at the place, 
they found that the inhabitants were departed. 
He was retired to his tent. Claudius was vexed, 
because his wife was become a Christian. 

Remark 4. 

His master taught him that happiness consisted 
in virtue. Copernicus believed that the sun was 
the centre of the solar system. The teacher ex- 
plained to the pupils that the earth was a sphere. 

Remarks 5, 6. 

If principles be innate, this doctrine is true. 
If he have much wealth, I am deceived. If these 
things be true, they merit serious consideration. If 
he have injured you, forgive him. 

If he goes again, I will accompany him. If the 
articles are sold next week, I will leave the city. 
Unless he labors diligently, he will not succeed. 
If he tells me the whole truth, I will forgive him. 
If it rains to-morrow, I will not go. If he arrives 
in time, he may go with us. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 181 

VULGARISMS. 
Improper expressions, commonly called vulgar- 
isms, may be generally avoided by carefully ob- 
serving the following directions. 

1. Do not use incorrect or vulgar words; such 
as, Shet for shut. Git for get. Yourn for yours. 

2. Do not use incorrect inflections of words ; as, 
Blowed for blew. Throwed for threw. 

3. Do not use superfluous words; as, He would 
not allow of it, for, He would not allow it. He said 
as how that I was wrong, for, He said that I was 
wrong. 

4. Do not use words in a sense different from 
their true meaning ; as, I calculate to study gram- 
mar, for, I intend to study grammar. I learned 
him to read, for, I taught him to read. 

EXERCISE. 

Models. 

1. Shet the door, is incorrect ; it should be, Shut the door: 
shet is an improper word, and should not be used. 

2. I knowed what to do, is incorrect; it should be, I knew 
what to do : knowed is an improper inflection for the past 
tense of know. - 

3. Bring me that there pencil, is incorrect; it should be, 
Bring me that pencil : there is superfluous and improper. 

4. There was no call for him to act so, is incorrect; it 
should be, There was no necessity for him to act so : call is 
used in an improper sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

Vulgarisms. Corrected. 

1. Git me a new book, Get me a new book. 

Shet the book, Shut the book. 

16 



182 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



He ketched by the banister of the 

stairs, 
She sot down, 

2. I knowed him well, 
The flowers growed fast, 
He throwed it away, 
The wind blowed hard, 
It was hisself that did it, 
You teached him grammar, 

3. That there desk is new, 
This here book is mine, 
I was just a talking, 

I saw her a coming, 

He said how that he would go, 

4. I calculate to be busy to-morrow, 
I will learn him better manners, 
Don't let on that you heard it, 
School is left out, 

I have got to go, 



He caught by the baluster of the 

stairs. 
She sat down. 

I knew him well. 

The flowers grew fast. 

He threw it away. 

The wind blew hard. 

It was himself that did it. 

You taught him grammar. 

That desk is new. 

This book is mine. 

I was just talking. 

I saw her coming. 

He said that he would go. 

I intend to be busy to-morrow. 

I will teach him better manners. 

Don't intimate that you heard it. 

School is dismissed. 

I am obliged to go. 



MISCELLANEOUS. 



I did not do it on purpose, 

The girls theirselves were there, 

Leave that window down, 

I mean for to go, 

He give me this book, 

You ain't going, 

I won't stay, 

I hain't got it, 

Them books are mine, 

Them boys hain't got no books, 

If I had have known it, I would not 

have went, 
You hadn't ought to say so, 
Says I to him, I am going to go, 
There is another one, 
In I walks, and sets right down, 
I guess I know, 
I never took notice to him, 
Let me fix your books, 
I expect that it was John, 
Don't loss your book, 



I did not intend to do it. 

The girls themselves were there. 

Let down that window. 

I intend to go. 

He gave me this book. 

You are not going. 

I will not stay. 

I have not got it. 

Those books are mine. 

Those boys have no books. 

If I had known it, I would not haye 

gone. 
You ought not to say so. 
I said to him, I am going. 
There is another. 
I walked in, and sat down. 
I think I know. 
I never noticed him. 
Let me arrange your books. 
I suppose that it was John. 
Do not lose your book. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 183 

I don't allow of that, I do not allow that. 

You shan't want for any thing, Yon shall not want any thing. 

They went all over the house, They went over all the house. 

I have better than fifty dollars, I have more than fifty dollars. 

Tell it over again, Tell it again. 

We must do this last of all, We must do this last. 

W r e saw nobody else but her, We saw nobody but her. 

Lift up your book, Lift your book. 

This book is hizzen, and that is hern, This book is his, and that is hers. 

I knew he'd come if he could, I knew he would come if he could. 

I reckon you know better, I suppose you know better. 

I have no fear lest he will succeed, I have no fear that he will succeed. 

IMPROPER EXPRESSIONS PROMISCUOUSLY ARRANGED. 

John and me went to the city. He had went 
before I come. I seen him as he set on his chair. 
He raised up gracefully. The book was laying on 
the floor. It was him, not me, who throwed the 
stone. The sun shined bright. 

No person should neglect their duties. He is 
opposed to you and I. Was you there? Who did 
you speak to ? A number of lessons were recited 
during the day. There was found gold and silver 
in abundance. None of the persons were found 
guilty. Where is England, Scotland, and Wales ? 
He thought it was me. John or James were there. 
The tree was shook by the wind. He become 
gray in youth. He laid in bed too long. The tree 
was bio wed down, and the branches were badly 
broke. The letter was badly wrote. 

He spoke slow and distinct. He daren't do it, 
because he knowed better. I heard of him being 
there. The news are good. * There was twenty 
men in the company. Nobody done their work 



184 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

better than me. Every one should attend to their 
own business. Was you there at the time ? I saw 
Jane, she that goes to school. Faint not, for to the 
steadfast soul comes wealth, and honor, and re- 
nown. My book is most wore out. You see it is 
badly tore. Let's you and I set together. Who 
came first? Me. It is them that study most, that 
learn most. Is your brother and sister at home ? 
Be not afraid, it is only me. 

Them that seek wisdom shall find her. Time 
and tide waits for no man. He had six pence, and 
he gave one of them to each of the children. The 
long train of ages glide away. There remains 
two points to be settled. I cannot agree with him 
neither. I will not consent to no such proceedings. 
There are, however, an infinite variety of degrees. 
My friend and me are of the same opinion. There 
appears to be two methods of solving this problem. 
Who did you write to? Neither subject nor predi- 
cate are limited. Either him or his brother will 
be there. Has he fell from his high estate, and 
came to this sad end ? 

The city lays low, and when the river raises, 
there is danger of inundation. I have been wait- 
ing this two hours. Whether he is to blame or 
no, I cannot tell. What do you think of him going 
to California? I forbade him studying so con- 
stantly. If he comes, we will treat him politely. 
If he be a good man, he is vilely slandered. You 
are no better than him. Give every letter, and 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 185 

every syllable, their proper sound. I bade him to 
come home. 

John had went before him. He had spoke a 
long time. He was most froze. It makes no dif- 
ference, as far as you or I are concerned. You or 
William have done this. He has a capacity in 
learning. This is very different to that. He went 
in the house. He would rather go as stay. See if 
it rains. It was no other but his father. They 
are just arrived. They are gone long ago. Are 
they come ? Such works always have, and always 
will be read. What kind of adjectives are com- 
pared ? 

She suffers more than me. I am not come to 
destroy the law and the prophets. My books are 
up stairs, go above stairs, and get them. It was 
not agreeable with prophecy nor conformable with 
the Divine arrangement. I do not know but what 
you are right. He reads remarkable well. Laws 
may, and frequently are made against drunkenness. 
If he lives a few days longer he will probably re- 
cover. I saw the man, he of whom you spoke. I 
have no occasion of his services. We have little 
hope for his recovery. We should profit from good 
advice. His conduct was approved of by friends 
and enemies. Where does he live at ? Where has 
he gone to ? Them are my books. 

This here slate, and that there pencil, is mine. 
They returned safely from the .expedition. They 
dug the well deeply. He can write better than 

16* 



186 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 






me. He dare not act contrary to his instructions. 
Has the goods been sold? Rudeness of manners 
disgust us. If it was not him, who w r as it ? Were 
you sure of its being me ? Who dares to deny his 
own accountability ? He proved that God was 
eternal and unchangeable. Columbus always has, 
and will be considered a great man. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
A sentence is an assemblage of words expressing 
a declaration, an interrogation, a command, or a 
petition. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

Sentences, with regard to their signification, are 
of three kinds, the declarative, the interrogative, and 
the imperative, each of which may be exclamatory. 

A declarative sentence is one which expresses a 
declaration ; as, Time flies swiftly. 

An interrogative sentence is one which expresses 
an interrogation ; as, Who art thou ? 

An imperative sentence is one which expresses a 
command or a petition; as, Love your enemies. 
Protect us, Heavenly Powers. 

A sentence is exclamatory when it indicates 
unusual emtion or earnestness; as, Rolla, you 
distract me ! Rouse ye, Romans ! Rouse ye, 
slaves ! 

Questions. — What is a sentence ? How are sentences divided with refer- 
ence to their signification ? What is a declarative sentence ? Give ex- 
amples. What is an interrogative sentence ? Give examples. What is 
an imperative sentence ? Give examples. What is an exclamatory sen- 
tence ? Give examples. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 187 

THE PROPOSITION. 

A proposition is an assemblage of words contain- 
ing a subject and predicate. It forms a sentence, 
or a distinct part of a sentence. 

The subject is that of which something is* 
affirmed. 

The predicate is that which is affirmed of the 
subject. 

* The word affirm, as here used, must be understood to include the 
declaration, the interrogation, and the command. 

Questions. — What is a proposition ? What is the subject ? What is the 
predicate ? How is the word affirm to be understood ? 

ANALYSIS. 

Models. 
Main descends. 
It is a sentence, it expresses a declaration ; a simple sen- 
tence, it contains but one proposition ; a proposition, it 
contains a subject and a predicate. Main is the subject: it 
is that of which something is affirmed. Descends is the pre- 
dicate: it is that which is affirmed of the subject. 
Has John been reading t 
It is a sentence, it expresses an interrogation ; a simple 
sentence, it contains but one proposition ; a proposition, it 
contains a subject and predicate. John is the subject: it 
is that of which something is affirmed. Has been reading is 
the predicate: it is that which is affirmed of the subject. 
Meading is the principal verb, and has smdbeen are auxiliaries. 

EXAMPLES. 

Trees grow. Snow falls. He is coming. Is he 
coming? John was walking. Is he offended? 
Will he come? Time flies. Nations are over- 
thrown. America was discovered. Alexander 



188 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

conquered. Was he waiting? Could he have 
written? May I go? Go. Learn. Study. I 
shall have been writing. It could have been done. 
He may be coming. Who is coming? What is 
done? Which is lost? They are discovered. 
Thou standest. Dost thou hear? Listen. It 
may be. He might have gone. 

SENTENCES, SIMPLE AND COMPOUND. 

Sentences, with regard to the number of their pro- 
positions, are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence is a sentence which contains 
but one proposition; as, Wheat grows in the field. 

A compound sentence is a sentence which con- 
tains two or more propositions; as, Wheat grows 
in the field, and men reap it. I will walk, that 
you may ride. 

The propositions which form a compound sen- 
tence are called clauses or members. 

Questions. — How are sentences divided with reference to their proposi- 
tions ? What is a simple sentence ? Give examples. What is a com- 
pound sentence ? Give examples. What are the propositions which form 
a compound sentence called ? 

THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 

The elements of sentences, with respect to form, 
are of three kinds, words, phrases, and clauses. 
A word element is a single part of speech. 

Remark. — A verb in the infinitive mode, though generally parsed as a 
single part of speech, is, strictly considered, a connective and a verb, and 
hence is taken as a phrase element. 

A phrase element is two or more words not form- 
ing a proposition, but constituting a distinct part 
of a sentence. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 189 

PHRASES, INFINITIVE AND PREPOSITIONAL. 

Phrases with regard to form are mostly of two 
kinds, the infinitive and the prepositional ; as. They 
commenced to study. He went to Boston. 

A phrase contains a connective and a base. 

The infinitive phrase has for its base a verb in 
the infinitive mode \ as, He is ready to proceed. 
He commenced to take great pains. 

The prepositional phrase has for its base the 
object of a preposition ; as, He went to Rome. He 
stood on a high eminence. 

A phrase consisting of the base and connective 
is a simple phrase ; as, To proceed. Among them. 

A phrase which has its base modified or limited, is 
a complex or modified phrase ; as, He commenced 
to rim rapidly. He lives in a distant country. 
PHRASES, COMPLETE AND DEFECTIVE. 

A phrase containing the base and connective 
expressed, is a complete phrase ; but if the connective 
is wanting, it is a defective phrase. 

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE. 

Complete. Defective. 

He commenced to read. I heard him read. 

He loved to study. I bade him study. 

They tried to run. I saw them run. 

I told him to come. Let him come. 

THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. 

Complete. Defective. 

He went to the city. He went home. 

He sold a book to John. He sold me a book. 

He commenced his journey He commenced his journey 

in the morning. last week. 

He was in the country dur- He was in the country three 

ing the whole summer. mo?iths. 



190 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

THE CLAUSE ELEMENT. 

A clause is a distinct part of a compound sen- 
tence, containing a proposition, and may be known 
by its always including a nominative and its verb. 

Clauses are distinguished as principal and sub- 
ordinate. 

A. principal clause is one that makes complete 
sense by itself. 

A subordinate clause is one that makes complete 
sense only in connection with another clause ; as, 
People are happy, because they are good. People 
are happy, is the principal clause; because they are 
good, is the subordinate clause. 

Questions. — What are the elements of sentences with respect to form ? 
What is a word element ? What is a phrase element? What is an infini- 
tive phrase ? Give examples. What is a .prepositional phrase ? Give 
examples. What is a simple phrase ? Give examples. What is a com- 
plex phrase ? Give examples. What is a clause ? What does every 
clause contain ? How are clauses distinguished ? What is a principal 
clause ? What is a subordinate clause ? Give examples. 

OFFICE OF THE ELEMENTS. 

The elements of sentences, with respect to office, 
are of six kinds ; subject, predicate, objective, adjective, 
adverbial, and connective. 

The grammatical subject of a proposition, is a 
subject element. 

The grammatical predicate of a proposition, is a 
predicate element. 

An element which is the object of a transitive 
verb, is an objective element. 

An element which limits or modifies a substan- 
tive, is an adjective element. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 191 

An element which modifies a verb, adjective, or 
adverb, is an adverbial element. 

An element used to unite words, phrases, or 
clauses, is a connective element. 

Any element having the construction of a noun or pronoun, may be 
called a substantive element. 

The subject and predicate are principal or essen- 
tial elements. The others are subordinate elements. 

Questions. — How many kinds of elements with respect to office ? What 
are they called? What is a subject element? A predicate element? 
An objective element? An adjective element? An adverbial element? 
A connective element? What may be called a substantive element? 
Which are principal elements ? Which are subordinate elements ? 

PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS, GRAMMATICAL AND LOGICAL. 

The subject and predicate are grammatical or 
logical. 

The grammatical subject is a word, phrase, or 
clause used as the subject of a finite verb ; as, John 
writes. To forgive is divine. That the earth is a 
sphere has been proved. 

The grammatical predicate is a finite verb; as, 
The sun shines. The sun is shining. 

The logical subject is the grammatical subject 
with all its limitations; as, The love of virtue is 
commendable : love is the grammatical, and the love 
of virtue is the logical subject. 

The logical predicate is the grammatical predi- 
cate with all its limitations ; as, Age increases the 
desire of living : increases is the grammatical, and 
increases the desire of living is the logical predi- 
cate. 



192 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

If there are no limitations, the logical element is 
the same as the grammatical element. 

Note. — The grammatical subject and predicate are generally called, for 
brevity, the subject and predicate. 

The grammatical subject may be limited by 
adjectives, by nouns and pronouns in apposition, or 
in the possessive case, and by phrases and clauses. 

The grammatical predicate may be limited by 
adjectives relating to the subject, by nouns and pro- 
nouns in the same case as the subject, or in the ob- 
jective case, and by adverbs, phrases, and clauses. 

Elements used as modifiers may themselves be 
limited by other elements. 

Questions. — What may the subject and predicate be ? What is the 
grammatical subject ? The logical subject ? The grammatical predicate ? 
The logical predicate? What if there are no limitations ? By what may 
the grammatical subject be limited? By what may the grammatical pre- 
dicate be limited ? What is said of elements used as modifiers ? 

Models. 
The wildest theories took the color of his whim. 
It is a sentence, it expresses a declaration ; a simple sen- 
tence, it contains but one proposition. Theories is the gram- 
matical subject, limited by the, a definitive adjective, and 
wildest, a descriptive adjective : the wildest theories is the logi- 
cal subject. Took is the grammatical predicate, limited by 
color ', a noun in the objective case, which is limited by the, 
a definitive adjective, and by the prepositional phrase of 
his whim ; of is a preposition, connecting color and whim ; 
whim is the object, limited by his, a pronoun in the posses- 
sive case : took the color of his whim, is the logical predicate. 

To lie is base. 
It is a sentence, it expresses a declaration ; a simple sen- 
tence, it contains but one proposition. To lie, an infinitive 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 193 

phrase used as a noun, is the grammatical subject, unlimited; 
hence it is also the logical subject. Is is the grammatical 
predicate, limited by base, a descriptive adjective relating 
to the subject : is base is the logical predicate. 

Having beheld the eclipse, they fled in dismay. 
It is a sentence, it expresses a declaration ; a simple sen- 
tence, it contains but one proposition. They is the gram- 
matical subject, limited by having beheld, a perfect participle, 
which is limited by eclipse, a noun in the objective case; 
eclipse is limited by the, & definitive adjective: they having 
beheld the eclipse is the logical subject. Fled is the gram- 
matical predicate, limited by the prepositional phrase in 
dismay ; in is a preposition connecting fled and dismay ; dis- 
may is the object : fled in dismay is the logical predicate. 

The sun having risen, they departed. 

It is a sentence, &c. They is the grammatical subject, 
not limited; hence it is also, the logical subject. Departed 
is the grammatical predicate, unlimited; hence it is also the 
logical predicate. Sun is a noun in the absolute case, used 
independently; it is limited by the, a definitive adjective, 
and having risen, a perfect participle. 

John, study your lesson carefully. 

It is a sentence, it expresses a command ; a simple sen- 
tence, it contains but one proposition. You understood is 
the grammatical subject, not limited: hence it is also the 
logical subject. Study is the grammatical predicate, limited 
by lesson, a noun in the objective case, and by carefully, an 
adverb of manner ; lesson is limited by your, a pronoun in 
the possessive case : study your lesson carefully is the logical 
predicate. John is a noun in the absolute case, used inde- 
pendently. 

William the Conqueror was king of England. 

It is a sentence, &c. William is the grammatical subject, 

limited by conqueror, a noun in apposition, which is limited 

by the, a definitive adjective; William the Conqueror is the 

logical subject. Was is the predicate, limited by king, a 

17 



194 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

noun in the same case as the subject; king is limited by the 
prepositional phrase of England; of is a preposition connect- 
ing king and England ; England is the object: was king of 
England is the logical predicate. 

He has attended school four years. 
It is a sentence, &c. He is the grammatical subject, un- 
limited; hence it is also the logical subject. Has attended 
is the grammatical predicate, limited by school, a noun in 
the objective case, also by the defective prepositional phrase 
four years; the connective is wanting ; years is a noun in the 
absolute case, limited by four, a definitive adjective; has 
attended school four years is the logical predicate. 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

Lofty cedars bend. The old bird sings. All 
men have sinned. The wise, prudent judge de- 
cided. Man's works decay. Your voice trembles. 
Nero, the tyrant, was hated. Cicero, the orator, 
was slain. I, John, saw these things. The love 
of money is the root of all evil. The voice of 
Truth will be heard. Know thyself. America 
was discovered by Columbus. Wise pupils study 
their books faithfully. Remember the Sabbath 
day. A contented mind is a continual feast. His 
request to speak was granted. Every endeavor to 
do right brings its own reward. They resided for 
a long time in Italy. The nightingale sings most 
sweetly at night. Is the hero of a hundred battles 
no more ? He desires to write elegantly. When 
may he be expected to return ? 

To read aloud is a profitable exercise. To know 
is to be powerful. I saw the man walking in the 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 195 

field. To create creatures liable to wants is to render 
them susceptible of enjoyment. Pride, that never- 
failing vice of fools, is not easily defined. The 
branch, broken by the wind, fell. The traveler 
heard the wind roaring. Lorenzo! pride repress. 
The general being slain, the army was routed. 
The pupils having finished their lessons, the school 
was dismissed. Paradise, the garden of Eden, is 
supposed to have been situated somewhere about 
the head-waters of the Euphrates, a river in Asia. 
Let him take good care of himself. Bid him 
come quickly. He was at church last Sabbath. 
He was absent a whole year. Let every one per- 
form his task faithfully. He lives a few miles 
from Pittsburgh. The wall was thirty feet long. 
He remained a short time, Stay a little while. 
Who dares deny his own accountability? We 
have been told their destiny and use. 

ELEMENTS SIMPLE AND COMPOUND. 
SUBJECT. 

The grammatical subject and predicate may be 
simple or compound. 

A simple subject consists of a single word, phrase, 
or clause ; as, William reads. To play is pleasant. 
Up a river is toward its source. When letters 
were first used is not certain. 

A compound subject consists of two or more words 
or phrases used as nominatives to the same verb ; 
as, John, William^ and James study grammar. To 
preach, and to teach are responsible duties. 



196 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

PREDICATE. 

A simple predicate consists of a single finite verb ; 
as, James is reading. Boys play. 

A compound predicate consists of two or more 
finite verbs taken together and having a common 
nominative; as, James reads and writes. 

Any subordinate element may be considered com- 
pound when it includes two or more words of the 
same rank joined by a coordinate connective ; as, 

The compound objective element. — He saw John 
and James. 

The compound adjective element. — He was a 
wise and good man. 

The compound adverbial element. — He acted 
secretly, prudently, and promptly. 

INDEPENDENT WORDS. 

Words which make no part of a proposition, are 
called independent words. They are principally — 

Nouns used in direct address; as, John, what are you 
doing ? In the case absolute before a participle ; as, The 
work being done, we returned. By exclamation ; as, O 
mighty Ccesar! In elliptical expressions used as the titles 
of books, heads of chapters, dates, &c. ; as, Osgood's 
Header. Section 1. Exercises in Articulation. January 1st. 

Adverbs used as the answer to questions; as, Will you 
go ? No. Were you there F Yes. How are you ? Well. 
In explanation; as, viz., namely, to wit. 

Interjections, and all other words used simply as ex- 
clamations; as, Alas! was it so? Oh, how awful! Indeed! 
indeed! but this troubles me. 

Expletives used for euphony; as, Twinkle, twinkle, 
little star. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 197 

Questions. — "What may the grammatical subject and predicate be? 
What is a simple subject? Give examples. A simple predicate? A 
compound predicate ? Give examples. When may a subordinate element 
be considered compound ? Give examples of the compound objective 
element. Of the compound adjective element. Of the compound ad- 
verbial element. What are independent words ? When are nouns used 
independently ? Adverbs ? What other words are used independently ? 

Models. 

A great general and a wise statesman are seldom united in the 

same person. 
It is a sentence, it expresses a declaration ; a simple sen- 
tence, it contains but one proposition. General and states- 
man connected by the conjunction and form the compound 
grammatical subject; general is limited by great, a descrip- 
tive adjective, and a, a definitive adjective; statesman is 
limited by wise, a descriptive adjective, and a, & definitive 
adjective; a great general and a wise statesman, is the logical 
subject. Are united is the grammatical predicate, limited 
by seldom, an adverb, and by the prepositional phrase in the 
same person; in is a preposition, connecting are united and 
person; person is the object, limited by same and the, defini- 
tive adjectives; are seldom united in the same person is the 
logical predicate. 

What! can he speak and write at the same time? 
It is a sentence, it expresses an interrogation ; a simple 
sentence, it contains but one proposition. He is the gram- 
matical subject, unlimited; hence it is also the logical sub- 
ject. Can speak and {can) write, connected by the conjunc- 
tion and, form the compound grammatical predicate, which 
is limited by the prepositional phrase at the same time; at is 
a preposition, connecting can speak and can write, and time; 
time is the object, limited by the and same, definitive ad- 
jectives; can speak and can write at the same time is the 
logical predicate. What is an interjection used indepen- 
dently. 

17* 



'Goldsmith's History of England. 
It is an elliptical expression, denoting the title of a book. 
History is a noun used independently; it is limited by Gold- 
smith's, a noun in the possessive case, and by the preposi- 
tional phrase of England: of is a preposition, connecting 
history and England ; England is the object. 

Oh! mighty Ccesar. 
It is an elliptical expression used as an exclamation. 
Ccesar is a noun used independently; it is limited by 
mighty, a descriptive adjective. Oh is an interjection used 
independently. 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

Vice and virtue are often treated alike. Have 
John and James written their copies ? The moon 
and stars were shining. George or James will go. 
Socrates, the philosopher, and Cicero, the friend of 
his country, were condemned to death. Socrates 
and Plato were Grecian philosophers. He could 
read and write well. He can neither read 1 nor 
write. He may either go or stay. In him, we live 
and move. No fascinated throng weep, and melt, 
and tremble at his eloquence. 

They heard Paul and Barnabas. 2 Cyrus con- 
quered Syria and Arabia. He is either at home, 
or abroad. Wise and good men are respected. 
He is neither wise nor good. 3 He talked with 

1 Read and write, connected by the correlatives neither and nor, form the 
compound grammatical predicate. 

2 The predicate is limited by Paul and Barnabas, nouns in the objective 
case, connected by the conjunction and. 

3 Is is the grammatical predicate, limited by wise and good, descriptive 
adjectives relating to the subject, and connected by the correlatives neither 
and nor. 






BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 199 

Moses and Elias. He acted wisely and prudently. 4 
He rose steadily, brightly, and gloriously. The 
atrocious crime of being a young man, I shall 
neither attempt to palliate nor deny. Approach 
and behold him now. To soothe thy sickness, and 
to watch thy health, shall be my pleasure. 

Whence are thy beams, O Sun? He appearing, 
they fled. Unto you, men, I call. Oh the folly 
of sin ! What uncharitable devotees I Webster's 
Quarto Dictionary. Macaulay's History of England. 
Chapter 4th. Examples for analysis. Kichard the 
III. Act 1st. Scene 4th. Pittsburgh, July 24th, 
1858. 

4 Acted is the grammatical predicate, limited by wisely and prudently, 
adverbs of manner, connected by the conjunction and. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A compound sentence may be composed of prin- 
cipal propositions; as, I will stay, and you will go; 
or it may be composed of dissimilar propositions ; 
as, I will stay, if you will go. 

Every sentence must contain at least one prin- 
cipal proposition, and may contain more. 

The propositions which form a compound sen- 
tence are generally united by connectives, ex- 
pressed or understood, or by incorporation; as, War 
makes rogues, and peace hangs them. It is sown 
in weakness, it is raised in power. Why he re- 
turned, is not known. 

Joined by incorporation means that one proposi- 
tion is used as the grammatical subject of another. 



200 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Questions. — What is a compound sentence ? What is said of the pro- 
positions which form a compound sentence ? What must every sentence 
contain? How are the propositions which form a compound sentence 
connected ? What is meant by incorporation ? 

Models. 
He stood on an eminence, and glory covered him. 

It is a compound sentence, composed of two propositions, 
both principal; he stood on an eminence is the iirst proposi- 
tion ; and glory covered him is the second proposition. 

Of the first proposition, he is the grammatical subject, 
unlimited; hence it is also the logical subject. Stood is the 
grammatical predicate, limited by the prepositional phrase 
on an eminence; on is a preposition, connecting stood and 
eminence; eminence is the object, limited by an, a definitive 
adjective; stood on an eminence is the logical predicate. 

Of the second proposition, glory is the grammatical sub- 
ject, unlimited ; hence it is also the logical subject. Covered 
is the grammatical predicate, limited by him, a pronoun in 
the objective case ; covered him is the logical predicate. And 
is a conjunction uniting the clauses. 

That man is happy who is. virtuous. 

It is a compound sentence, composed of two propositions, 
one principal and one subordinate : that man is happy is the 
principal proposition; who is virtuous is the subordinate pro- 
position. 

Of the principal proposition, man is the grammatical sub- 
ject, limited by that, a definitive adjective, and by the sub- 
ordinate clause who is virtuous ; that man who is virtuous is the 
logical subject. Is is the grammatical predicate, limited by 
happy, a descriptive adjective relating to the subject; is 
happy is the logical predicate. 

Of the subordinate proposition, who is the grammatical 
subject, &c. (Analyze in full.) 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 201 

» 

That he is guilty, is evident. 

It is a compound sentence, composed of two propositions, 
one principal and one subordinate, joined by incorporation : 
that he is guilty, is evident, is the principal proposition ; that 
he is guilty is the subordinate proposition. 

Of the principal proposition, the subordinate clause, that 
he is guilty is the grammatical subject, unlimited; hence it 
is also the logical subject, is is the grammatical predi- 
cate, limited by evident, a descriptive adjective relating to 
the subject; is evident is the logical predicat. 

That he is guilty is the subordinate proposition, used as 
the subject of the principal proposition ; he is the gram- 
matical subject, unlimited, &c. {Analyze in full.) That is 
a conjunction introducing the clause. 

I heard what he said. 

It is a compound sentence, composed of two propositions 
one principal and one subordinate. I heard is the prin- 
cipal proposition. What he said is the subordinate propo- 
sition. 

Of the principal proposition, I is the grammatical subject, 
unlimited; hence it is also the logical subject. Heard is 
the grammatical predicate, limited by the subordinate 
clause what he said. Heard what he said is the logical pre- 
dicate. 

Of the subordinate proposition, he is the grammatical sub- 
ject, unlimited; hence it is also the logical subject. Said 
is the grammatical predicate, limited by what, a pronoun 
in the objective case; said what is the logical predicate. 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

Horace was the companion of Virgil, and died 
eight years 1 before Christ. He must increase, but 
I must decrease. Avarice and^ cunning may ac- 
quire an estate, but they cannot make friends, I 



202 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

was hungry, and ye gave me 2 meat. Green is the 
most refreshing color to the eye, and Providence 
has made it the most common dress of nature. Go 
to the ant, thou sluggard, consider her ways, and 
be wise. All this passed much quicker than I can 
write it. I will walk, that you may ride. 

When I return, you may go. Those evils winch 
cannot be cured, must be endured. When he arose, 
every sound was hushed. Eternity is longer than 
time? John is as tall as James. The missing 
vessel, for which we looked so long, has arrived. 
I know who came. The man who instructs you 
labors faithfully. My desire is that you may suc- 
ceed. Why he did it is not known. When thou 
hast received a favor, remember it. If you 
squander your money, you will be poor. If we 
do not exercise our faculties, they will become 
impaired. 

He studies what is useful. Whoever sins, will 
suffer. He will do what is right. Take whichever 
book pleases you best. 4 You may pursue those 
studies which suit your taste. He has what money 
he wants. Who will go, is the question. Speak 
as you think. She is not so amiable as her sister. 
Much depends on who the men are. He can write 
as well as you can. Now I know in part, but then 
I shall know even as I am known. 

1 Eight years is a defective prepositional phrase, limiting the verb died. 

2 Me is a defective prepositional phrase, limiting the verb gave. 

3 Time is the subject of the verb is understood. 

4 Take whichever book that pleases you best. The subject of the sub- 
ordinate clause is the relative that understood. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 203 

OBJECTS AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES. 

An object is any thing which has a name; as, 
ftian, tree, wisdom. 

An attribute is something which pertains to an 
object ; as, Good boys. Wise men. Boys play. 

Attributes are mostly of three kinds; of action, 
of quality, and of class. 

Attributes of action are expressed by verbs or 
verbal adjectives ; as, The stream runs. A run- 
ning stream. 

Attributes of quality are expressed by adjectives; 
as, A good scholar. The tree is tall. 

Attributes of class are expressed by substantives; 
as, Paul the apostle. Trees are plants. 

The attribute may be assumed or predicated; as, 
A tall tree. The tree is tall. 

When an attribute is assumed, it is expressed by 
a modifier of its object. 

When an attribute is predicated, it is expressed 
by a proposition, and is the grammatical predicate, 
or an element used to limit the predicate, relating 
in sense to the subject. 

ATTRIBUTES OP ACTION. 

Assumed. Predicated. 

The running stream. The stream runs. 

The roaring wind. The wind was roaring. 

The sun approaching dispels The sun is approaching. 
the mist. 

ATTRIBUTES OF QUALITY. 

A kind man. The man is kind. 

The tall tree. The tree is tall. 

A benevolent lady. The lady was benevolent. 



204 



PROGRESSIVE SERIES, 



ATTRIBUTES OF CLASS. 



Paul the apostle preached. 

Gold, the most precious metal, 
is abundant in California. 

The elephant, a large ani- 
mal, is found in Asia and 
Africa. 



Paul was an apostle. 
Gold is a precious metal. 

The elephant is a large ani- 
mal. 



Remark. — The attribute may express a circumstance of 
time or place; as, It was then. He was here. 

VERBS, ATTRIBUTIVE AND COPULATIVE. 

Verbs which express the attribute are called 
attributive verbs. 

Verbs which require the addition of an element 
to express the attribute are called copulative verbs. 

Attributive Verbs. Copulative Verbs. 

The sun shines. He is very good. 

The man was walking. He may become wise. 

The river is rising. He was called John. 

The earth revolves. Gold is a metal. 

EXPANDING. 

An expression may be expanded by substituting 
a phrase or clause for a word, or a clause for a 
phrase; as, 

Phrase. 

Men of wisdom. 
A walk in the even- 



Word. 
Wise men. 
An evening walk. 



Egyptian relics. 

The English 

Edward. 
Very quickly. 



A madman. 



ing. 
Relics from Egypt. 

king Edward king of 
England. 
In great haste. 
The city of Boston. 



Clause. 

Men who are wise. 
A walk when it is 

evening- 
Eelics which were 

found in Egypt. 
Edward who was 

king of England. 

The city which is 

called Boston. 
A man who is mad. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 205 

EXERCISE. 

Expand the following expressions. 
Prudent men. Wealthy persons. Benevolent men. 
Solomon's temple. The queen's house. The king's castle. 
The poor man's lot. The warlike nations. A silver plate. 
The house-top. A tall tree. Cicero the orator. An indus- 
trious man will prosper. A good man will be happy. Last 
year's report was incorrect. 

ABRIDGING. 

Expressions are abridged by the reverse of the 
foregoing ; as, A lady who conformed to the fashions 
was there. A lady of fashion was there. A 
fashionable lady was there. 

• Abridge the following expressions. 
A gentleman who came from the south. A lady who 
came from France. A man who has good health. The 
soldiers who serve the king. The person who tells lies. 
General Scott was the commander-in-chief of the army. 
The light which comes from the sun, is pleasant. The 
coffee which is produced in Java, is excellent. 

MODELS FOR ANALYSIS. 

The following mode s will be found convenient for 

analyzing continuous miposition, and for learning 

the office of the dements* 

We are anxious to see you. 
It is a principal proposition. We is the subject, unlimited. 
Are is the predicate, limited by anxious, an adjective word 
element denoting the attribute, which is li. ited by to see 
you, an adverbial phrase element; to is the c~ mective, and 
see is the base, limited by you, an objective word element. 

* Before using these models, the pupil should study thoroughly the 
treatise on the elements of sentences found on pages 188-190. 

13 



206 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

He returned last week. 

It is a principal proposition. He is the subject, unlimited. 
Returned is the predicate, limited by last week* an adverbial 
phrase element; the connective is wanting; week is the 
base, limited by last, an adjective word element. 

* A defective prepositional phrase denoting time. 

The, wall was three feet high. 
It is a principal proposition. Wall is the subject, limited 
by the, an adjective word element. Was is the predicate, 
limited by high, sua. adjective word element denoting the 
attribute; high is limited by three feet,* an adverbial phrase 
element; the connective is wanting;/^ is the base, limited 
by three, an adjective word element. 

* A defective prepositional phrase denoting quantity, 

The boy who studies will improve. 

The boy will improve is a principal proposition; boy is the 
subject, limited by the, an adjective word element; will 
improve i£ the predicate, unlimited. 

Who studies is a subordinate proposition, limiting the 
noun boy, hence an adjective clause element; who is the 
subject, unlimited; studies is the predicate, unlimited. 

If thou wouldst know what thou art, ascertain what thou canst do. 

If thou wouldst know is a subordinate proposition, limiting 
the verb ascertain, hence an adverbial clause element; thou 
is the subject, unlimited; wouldst know is the predicate; if is 
the connective word element, uniting clauses. 

What thou art is a subordinate proposition, object of the 
transitive verb wouldst know, hence an objective clause 
element; thou is the subject, unlimited; art is the predicate, 
limited by what, a substantive word element denoting the 
attribute. 

Ascertain i& a principal proposition: thou or you understood 
is the subject, unlimited; ascertain is the predicate. 

What thou canst do is a subordinate proposition, object of 



BURTt's ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 207 

the transitive verb ascertain, hence an objective clause ele- 
ment; thou is the subject, unlimited j canst do is the predicate, 
limited by what, an objective word element. 

Where he was, could not be ascertained. 

Where he teas is a subordinate proposition used as the 
subject of another proposition, hence a substantive clause 
element; he is the subject, unlimited; was is the predicate, 
limited by where, an adverbial word element denoting the 
attribute. 

Where he was, could not be ascertained, is a principal pro- 
position; where he was is the subject, unlimited; could be 
ascertained is the predicate, limited by not, an adverbial 
word element. 

Mounds of earth and monuments of marble shall pass away; 

but impressions made upon the deathless spirit, like scars 

upon the oak, become a part of itself, and abide forever. 

Mounds of earth and monuments of marble shall pass away, 
is a principal proposition ; mounds and monuments form the 
subject, hence compound; mounds is limited by of earth, an 
adjective phrase element, of which of is the connective and 
earth the base ; monuments is limited by of marble, an ad- 
jective phrase element, of which of is the connective and mar. 
ble the base; and is a connective word element, uniting the 
expressions mounds of earth, and monuments of marble. Shall 
pass is the predicate, limited by away, an adverbial word 
element. 

But impressions made upon the deathless spirit, like scars 
upon the oak, become a part of itself, is a principal proposition ; 
impressions is the subject, limited by made, an adjective 
word element, which is limited by upon the deathless spirit, 
an adverbial phrase element, of which upon is the connect- 
ive and spirit is the base; the base is limited by the and 
deathless, adjective word elements. Become is the predicate, 
limited by part, a substantive word element denoting the 
attribute ; part is limited by a, an adjective word element, 



208 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 






and of itself, an adjective phrase element, of which o/is the 
connective and itself the base. 

And abide forever is a principal proposition ; they under- 
stood is the subject, unlimited; abide is the predicate, 
limited by forever, an adverbial word element. 

On thy fair bosom, silver lake, 
Oh! I could ever sweep the oar; 

When early birds at morning wake, 
And evening tells us toil is o'er. 

On thy fair bosom, silver lake, Oh ! I could ever sweep the oar, 
is a principal proposition; /is the subject, unlimited; could 
sweep is the predicate, limited by ever, an adverbial word 
element, and oar, an objective word element, which is 
limited by the, an adjective word element; the predicate is 
further limited by on thy fair bosom, an adverbial phrase 
element, of which on is the connective, and bosom the base; 
bosom is limited by thy and fair, adjective word elements; 
silver lake is a substantive used independently; Oh! is an 
exclamation used independently. 

When early birds at morning wake is a subordinate propo- 
sition, limiting could sweep, hence an adverbial clause 
element ; birds is the subject, limited by early, an adjective 
word element; wake is the predicate, limited by at morning, 
an adverbial phrase element, of which at is the connective, 
and morning the base. When is a connective word element 
uniting clauses. 

And evening tells us is a subordinate proposition, limiting 
could sweep, hence an adverbial clause element; evening is 
the subject, unlimited ; tells is the predicate, limited by us, 
an objective word element; and is a connective word 
element uniting clauses. 

Toil is o'er is a subordinate proposition, object of the 
transitive verb tells, hence an objective clause element; 
toil is the subject, unlimited; is is the predicate, limited by 
o'er, an adjective word element denoting the attribute. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 209 

EXAMPLES FOR ANALYSIS. 

Virtue embalms the memory of the good. Great- 
ness may build a tomb, but goodness alone deserves 
an epitaph. No revenge is more noble than that 
which torments envy by doing good. 

It would be delightful to live in perfect trust, to 
doubt no one, and to believe alL 

Oh, lay me, ye that see the light, near some rock 
of my hills ; let the thick hazels be around ; let the 
rustling oak be near; green be the place of my rest; 
let the sound of the distant torrent be heard. Daugh- 
ter of Toscar, take the harp, and raise the lovely 
song of Selma, that sleep may overtake my soul in 
the midst of joy, that the dreams of my youth 
may return, and the days of the mighty FingaL 

As the branches of a tree return their sap to the 
root from which it arose; as a river pours its 
waters to the sea from which its springs were sup- 
plied ; so the heart of a grateful man delights in 
returning a benefit received. 

I went by the field of the slothful, and by the 
vineyard of the man void of understanding, and 
lo ! it was all grown over with thorns. 

Life is real, life is earnest; 

And the grave in not its goal ; 
Dust thou art, to dust return est, 

Was not written of the soul. 

The combat deepens : on, ye brave, 
Who rush to glory or the ^grave ! 
Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave. 
And charge with all thy chivalry! 

18* 



210 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



EVENING SOUNDS. 

Sweet was the sound, when oft, at evening's close. 

Up yonder hill the village murmur rose ; 

There, as I pass'd with careless step and slow, 

The mingling notes came soften'd from below; 

The swain responsive as the milkmaid sung, 

The sober herd that low'd to meet their young, 

The noisy geese that gabbled o'er the pool, 

The playful children just let loose from school, 

The watch-dog's voice, that bay'd the whispering wind, 

And the loud laugh that spoke the vacant mind, — 

These all in soft confusion sought the shade, 

And fill'd each pause the nightingale had made. 

THE SOLDIER'S DREAM. 

Our bugles sang truce — for the night cloud had lower' d ; 

And the sentinel stars set their watch in the sky; 
And thousands had sunk on the ground overpower' d,— 

The weary to sleep, and the wounded to die. 

When reposing that night on my pallet of straw, 
By the wolf-scaring fagot that guarded the slain, 

At the dead of the night a sweet vision I saw, 
And thrice ere the morning I dreamt it again. 

Methought from the battle-field's dreadful array, 
Far, far I had roam'd on a desolate track; 

'Twas autumn — and sunshine arose on the way, 

To the home of my fathers, that welcomed me back. 

I flew to the pleasant fields traversed so oft, 

In life's morning march, when my bosom was young; 

I heard my own mountain-goats bleating aloft, 

And knew the sweet strain that the corn-reat>er& gwvty 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 211 

Then pledged we the wine-cup, and fondly I swore 
From my home and my weeping friends never to part; 

My little ones kiss'd me a thousand times o'er, 
And my wife sobb'd aloud in her fullness of heart. 

"Stay, stay with us — rest, thou art weary and worn :" 
And fain was their war-broken soldier to stay; 

But sorrow return' d with the dawning of morn, 
And the voice in my dreaming ear melted away. 

THE SEASONS, A PICTURE OP HUMAN LIFE. 

'Tis done ! dread Winter spreads his latest glooms, 

And reigns tremendous o'er the conquer' d year. 

How dead the vegetable kingdom lies ! 

How dumb the tuneful ! Horror wide extends 

His desolate domain ! Behold, fond man ! 

See here thy pictured life. Pass some few years, 

Thy flowering Spring, thy Summer's ardent strength, 

Thy sober Autumn fading into age, 

And pale concluding Winter comes at last, 

And shuts the scene. Ah ! whither now are fled 

Those dreams of greatness ? those unsolid hopes 

Of happiness? those longings after fame? 

Those restless cares ? those busy, bustling days ? 

Those gay-spent, festive nights ? those veering thoughts, 

Lost between good and ill, that shared thy life ? 

All now are vanish' d ! Virtue sole survives, 

Immortal, never-failing friend of man, 

His guide to happiness on high. 

EESIGNATIOK 
Should fate command me to the farthest verge 
Of the green earth, to distant barb'rous climes, 
Bivers unknown to song; where first the sun 
Gilds Indian mountains, or his setting beam 
Flames on the Atlantic isles; 'tis naught to me; 



212 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Since God is ever present, ever felt, 

In the void waste as in the city full; 

And where he vital breathes there must be joy. 

When e'en at last the solemn hour shall come, 

And wing my mystic flight to future worlds, 

I, cheerful, will obey; there, with new powers, 

Will rising wonders sing : I cannot go, 

Where universal love not smiles around, 

Sustaining all yon orbs, and all their suns: 

Prom seeming evil still educing good, 

And better thence again, and better still, 

In infinite progression. But I lose 

Myself in him, in light ineffable ! 

Come, then, expressive silence, muse his praise. 

UNITY OF CKEATIOK 

All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 

Whose body nature is, and God the soul : 

That, changed through all, and yet in all the same, 

Great in the earth, as in th/ ethereal frame ; 

Warms in the sun, refreshes in the breeze, 

Glows in the stars, and blossoms in the trees; 

Lives through all life, extends through all extent, 

Spreads undivided, operates unspent; 

Breathes in our soul, informs our mortal part, 

As full, as perfect, in a hair as heart; 

As full, as perfect, in vile man that mourns, 

As the wrapt seraph that adores and burns : 

To him no high, no low, no great, no small: 

He fills, he bounds, connects, and equals all. 

What conscience dictates to be done, 

Or warns me not to do, 
This teach me more than hell to shun, 

That more than heaven pursue. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 213 



PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, figures, and versification. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written composition by 
means of points or pauses. 

The principal points used in punctuation are six, 
namely : — 

The Period, (.) The Colon, (:) 

The Interrogation, (?) The Semicolon, (;) 

The Exclamation, (!) The Comma. (,) 

The first three, are generally used to separate sentences ; 
the last three, to separate the parts of a sentence. 

THE PERIOD (.). 

The period is placed — 

1. After each complete declarative and imperative sen- 
tence. 

2. After all elliptical expressions denoting the titles of 
books, heads of chapters, dates, &c. 

3. After each abbreviated word, and initial letter. 
Tell why periods are used in the following expressions. 

The spirit of true heroism is generous. Wisdom and virtue ennoble us. 
Go forth to meet him. Listen to the voice of Wisdom. 

Kirkham's Grammar. Part 1. Orthography. Eule 4. March 4th, 
1858. 

Dr. Viz. Esq. Messrs. A. B. F. R. S. A. D. Simpson. Esq. 



214 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 



THE INTERROGATION ('?). 

An interrogation point is placed after each interrogative 
sentence; as, Where are you going ? What will he do ? 

THE EXCLAMATION (!). 

1. The exclamation point should be placed after each 
exclamatory expression. 

An exclamatory expression may be a word, phrase, or 
sentence; as, Strange ! Alas, poor Torick ! How wonder- 
ful is man ! 

2. When an interjection is used as an independent ex- 
pression, it should be followed by the exclamation ; as, 
Hark ! it is distant music. Oh ! horrible thought ! 

3. When an interjection is used to introduce an exclama- 
tory expression, the point should be placed after the expres- 
sion, but not after the interjection; as, Alas, for his poor 
family ! O men of Athens ! 

4. When an interjection is repeated, the point is generally 
placed after the last; as, Fie, fie ! Ha, ha, ha ! 

Tell xcJxy the interrogation and exclamation points are used in 
the following expressions. 

Can gray hairs make folly venerable ? What do you say ? What ? 
Are the wicked happy ? Can sinners escape punishment ? 

To purchase heaven has gold the power ? 
Can gold remove the mortal hour ? 
In life can love be bought with gold ? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be sold ? 

Daughter of faith, awake ! arise ! illume the dread unknown, the chaos 
of the tomb ! Rolla ! you distract me ! A dread eternity ! How 
surely mine ! How are the mighty fallen ! Approach and behold him 
now ! How pale ! how silent ! Alas ! those happy days are gone. Oh I 
you are wounded, my lord. 












BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 215 



THE COLON (J). 

1. The colon should be placed after a clause which is 
complete in itself, but which is followed, without a con- 
nective, by some remark, inference, or illustration; as f 
Harbor no malice in thy heart : it will be a viper in thy 
bosom. 

2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, 
and a greater pause is necessary, the colon may be used ; as, 

He sank to repose where the red heaths are blended ; 

One dream of his childhood his fancy pass'd o'er: 
But his battles are fought, and his marches are ended ; 

The sound of the bagpipe shall wake him no more. 

3. The colon may be placed after the expressions thus, 
following, and as follows, when reference is made by them 
to something coming after ; as, He ascended the platform, 
and spoke thus : Friends and fellow-citizens, &c. 

4. A colon should be placed before a quotation, speech, a 
course of reasoning, or a specification of articles or subjects 
when formally introduced ; as, In a letter from Oxford to 
my brother Amos, he thus expresses himself: "See that 
you govern your passions/' &c. 

EXAMPLES. 

Rebuke the erring in private : public reproof hardens. 

To rule one's anger is well; to prevent it is better. 

The well-bred man desires to please : the coxcomb, to shine. 

The warrior spoke as follows ; man heavy with wine, why dost thou 
keep prattling ? 

He rose amidst the throng, and thus began : 
Assembled peers of this our middle state. 

THE SEMICOLON (}). 

1. The semicolon is inserted after a part of a compound 
sentence which makes complete sense ; as, Straws swim on 
the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom. 



216 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

2. A semicolon is put before as, viz., to wit, namely, i.e. 
or that is, when they precede an example or a specification 
of particulars; as, A noun is a name; as, John, Pittsburgh, 
wisdom. 

EXAMPLES. 

There is good for the good ; there is virtue for the faithful ; there is 
victory for the valiant ; there is spirituality for the spiritual. 

We love liberty ; we glory in the rights of men ; we glory in indepen- 
dence. 

Every thing grows old ; every thing passes away ; every thing disap- 
pears. The wind and rain are over ; calm is the noon of the day ; the 
clouds are divided in heaven ; over the green hills flies the inconstant 
sun. 

THE COMMA (,}. 

1. Two words in the same construction, if used without a 
connective, are separated by a comma; as, Lend, lend your 
wings. Can flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death? 

2. Three or more words or phrases in the same construc- 
tion are separated by commas; as, Industry, honesty, and 
temperance, are essential to happiness. The full, round, 
beautiful, faultless, and perfect period. For him, for me, 
for all, the earth in beauty smiles. 

3. An expression denoting the object addressed is pointed 
off by the comma; as, John, study carefully. Boast not, 
dear friends, of to-morrow. 

4. An expression containing the absolute case before a 
participle is set off by a comma ; as, The sun having risen, 
we departed. 

5. The case in apposition, when limited otherwise than 
by the article, is set off by commas; as, Arnold, the base 
traitor, escaped. Homer, the great poet of antiquity, is 
said to have been blind. The twin sisters, piety and 
poetry, are wont to dwell together. 

6. Successive pairs of words should be separated by 
commas ; as, Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I 
am for the declaration. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 217 

7. Clauses which do not require to be separated by a 
longer pause are generally separated by a comma; as, I 
will walk, that you may ride. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

A clause is not pointed off — 

1 When it is the subject of a finite verb; as, Where he 
went is not known. 

2 When it is the object of a transitive verb; as, I heard 
what he said. 

3 When it has the construction of the predicate nomina- 
tive ; as, His chief merit was that he was a true man. 

4 When it is a relative clause joined directly to the ante- 
cedent; as, The boy who studies will improve. 

5 When it denotes comparison, and follows as or than ; as, 
He was a better scholar than I supposed him to be. 

8. A comma is generally used to indicate an ellipsis of the 
predicate; as, The young are slaves to novelty; the old, to 
custom. 

9. A short quotation, or an expression having the appear- 
ance of a quotation, is set off by the comma. 

10. When an element of a sentence is loosely connected, 
or used parenthetically or intermediately, it is set off by 
the comma; as, Strong proofs, not a loud voice, produce 
conviction. We must, however, pay some deference to the 
opinions of the wise. 

EXAMPLES. 

Veracity, justice, and charity are essential virtues. If thine enemy 
hunger, feed him ; if he thirst, give him drink. Curiosity allures the 
"wise; vanity, the foolish; and pleasure, both. Labor brings pleasure; 
idleness, pain. On the rich and the eloquent, on nobles and priests, the 
Puritans looked down with contempt. He, like the world, his ready 
visit pays where fortune smiles. St. John says, "God is love." Truth 
is not a stagnant pool, but a fountain. Though deep, yet clear ; though 
gentle, yet not dull. The sun having risen, we departed. 

For an exercise in punctuation, let the pupil take selections 

19 



218 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

from his Reader, or from any other book, and tell why each point 
is used. 

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING. 

Besides those already considered, other marks are some- 
times used in writing and printing, the principal of which 
are as follows : — 

The Dash ( — ) is used to denote a sudden suspension or 
change of the sense; as, I will inquire into the affair, and 
if And if, interrupted the farmer, &c. 

The Parenthesis ( ) is used to distinguish a clause thrown 
in between the parts of a sentence, to which it does not 
properly belong; as, Know then this truth, (enough for 
man to know,) Yirtue alone gives happiness below. Abou 
Ben Adhem (may his tribe increase !) awoke one night from 
a deep dream of peace. 

The Brackets [ ] are used to enclose a word or phrase 
introduced for explanation; as, He [the speaker] was of a 
different opinion. 

The Apostrophe ( ? ) is used either as the sign of the pos- 
sessive case, or to denote the omission of one or more 
letters; as, John's book. O'er, tho', for over, though. 

The Quotation marks (" ") are used to include a passage 
taken verbatim from some other author; as, The poet says, 
"Be wise to-day." 

The Section ( § ) and Paragraph ( \ ) are used to indicate 
the beginning of a new subject. 

The Diceresis ( • • ) is placed over the latter of two vowels 
occurring together, to show that each is taken in a different 
syllable ; as, aerial, coordinate. 

The Hyphen ( - ) is used to separate the parts of a com- 
pound word; as, ever-living. It is also placed at the end 
of a line, to show that one or more syllables of a word are 
carried forward to the next line; as, It is incompat- 
ible with truth. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 219 

The Caret (a) is used to show where something omitted, 

is 

and afterwards interlined, is to be read; as, The book lost. 

A 
TheEllipsis ( or * * * *) denotes the omission of 

some letters or words ; as, k g, for king. 

The Asterisk (*), the Obelisk (f ), the Double Dagger (J), 
the Parallels ( || ), &c, are used to refer to marginal notes. 
Letters and figures may be used for the same purpose. 

FIGURES. 

A figure is a licensed deviation from the ordinary form or 
use of a word, or construction of a sentence. 

Figures are of three kinds ; figures of Etymology, figures 
of Syntax, and figures of 'Rhetoric. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

A figure of Etymology is a deviation from the ordinary 
form of a word. 

The figures of Etymology are as follow : — 

Aphceresis cuts off a letter or syllable from the beginning 
of a word; as, 'gainst, 'gan, for against, began. 

Syncope removes a letter or syllable from the middle of a 
word; as, o'er, e'er, lov'd, for over, ever, loved. 

Apocope cuts off a letter or syllable from the end of a 
word; as, th', tho', for the, though. 

Prosthesis adds a letter or syllable to the beginning of a 
word ; as, adown, bepaint, for down, paint. 

Paragoge adds a letter or syllable to the end of a word ; 
as, withouten, bounden, for without, bound. 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the ordinary con- 
struction of a sentence. 

Ellipsis is the omission of a word, phrase, or clause 
which is necessary to complete the construction; as, Go; 



220 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

i.e. Go thou. Who came? George; i.e. George came. 
Strange; i.e. It is strange. 

Pleonasm is the use of words not necessary to the con- 
struction; as, I know thee, who thou art. He that hath 
ears to hear, let him hear. Gad, a troop shall overcome 
him. 

Miallage is the use of one part of speech for another, or of 
one modification for another ; as, They fall successive (ly) 
and successive (ly) rise. A world devote to universal 
wreck. 

Hyperbaton is the transposition of words from their natural 
order ; as, Afar is heard his voice sublime. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A figure of 'Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary 
application of a word. Figures of this kind are commonly 
called Tropes. 

Simile is a direct comparison, introduced by like, as, or 
so; as, He is like a tree planted by the rivers of water. 

Metaphor gives to one object the name of another object, 
on account of a resemblance between them ; as, That man 
is a fox. He is a pillar of state. The soldiers were per- 
fect lions. 

An Allegory is a continued metaphor or series of meta- 
phors; as, The Pilgrim's Progress. 

A Parable is an allegory usually drawn from such events 
as might occur ; as, Parable of the Sower. (Matt, xiii.) 
Of the Ten Virgins. (Matt, xxv.) 

Metonymy is a change of names: it gives one object the 
name of another, which has some relation to it; as, Gray 
hairs should be respected, meaning, Old age should be re- 
spected. The kettle boils. He addressed the chair. 

Personification attributes to inanimate objects some of the 
qualities of living beings ; as, The earth smiles with plenty. 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 221 

Doth not Wisdom cry, and Understanding put forth her 
voice ? 

Irony makes a sentence convey a meaning the opposite of 
its ordinary use ; as, And we, brave men, are satisfied if we 
ourselves escape the sword. He was virtuous as a Nero. 

Hyperbole exaggerates the truth ; as, Eivers of water run 
down mine eyes. 

Antithesis contrasts two or more things with each other ; 
as, By honor and dishonor, by evil report and good report, 
as deceivers and yet true. 

Synecdoche puts a part for the whole, or a whole for a 
part; as, This roof [i.e. house] protects you. Alexander 
conquered the world; [i.e. the people.] 

Exclamation is used to express some strong emotion of 
the mind ; as, Oh, Liberty ! Oh, sound, once delightful to 
every Roman ear ! 

Vision represents a past or future event as present to 
the view; as, 

I see the dagger-crest of Mar ; 
I see the Moray's silver star. 

Interrogation expresses a strong affirmation in the form 
of a question; as, Hath he said it, and will he not 
doit? 

Apostrophe is a sudden transition from the subject of dis- 
course to address some other person or thing. 

Climax is a series of members in a sentence each rising 
in importance above the preceding. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Composition is of two kinds, prose, and verse or poetry. 

Prose is composition in which the words are arranged 
with a primary reference to the sense. 

Poetry is composition in which special regard is had to 
measure or metre. 

19* 



222 PROGRESSIVE SERIES. 

Measure or metre denotes a systematic arrangement of 
the accented and unaccented syllables. 
A verse is a single line. 

A foot is a division containing two or three syllables. 
A stanza is a division consisting of two or more lines. 

Feet are of eight kinds, four of two syllables and four 
of three syllables. 

Those consisting of two syllables are : — 
The Trochee, which has the first syllable accented and the 
second unaccented ; as, hateful, pettish. 

Softly | sweet, in | Lydian | measures, 
Soon he | soothed his | soul to | pleasures. 

The Iambus, which has the second syllable accented and 
the first unaccented; as, betray, consist. 

Before | Jeho | vah's aw | ful throne, | 
Ye na | tions, bow | with sa | cred joy. | 

The Spondee has both syllables accented ; as, pale moon, 
tall tree. 

The Pyrrhic has both syllables unaccented ; as, on the tall 
tree. 

Those consisting of three syllables are : — 

The Anapest, which has the last syllable accented and 
the first two unaccented ; as, incomplete. 

At the close | of the day, | when the ham | let is still. | 

The Dactyl, which has the first syllable accented and the 
last two unaccented; as, laborer, possible. 

Come, ye dis | consolate, | where'er you | languish. | 

This example contains three Dactylic feet and one 
Trochee. 

The Amphibrach, which has its second syllable accented 
and the other two unaccented ; as, delightful. 

There is a | bleak desert | where daylight | grows weary | 
Of wasting | its smile on | a region | so dreary. | 



BURTT'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 223 

The Tribrach, which has all of its syllables unaccented; 

as, nu | merable. 

The Spondee, Pyrrhic, and Tribrach are seldom used ; and verse is never 
formed of them alone. 

RHYME AND BLANK YERSE. 

The most prominent divisions of poetry are rhyme and 
blank verse. 

In rhyme the final syllables of two or more lines have 

similar sounds; as ; 

A grasshopper gay 
Sung the summer away, 
And found himself poor 
By the winter's first roar. 

A couplet is two lines which rhyme, taken together; as, 
Once upon a midnight dreary 1 
While I ponder' d, weak and weary. 

A triplet consists of three lines which rhyme; as, 

!Few., few shall part, where many meet, 
The snow shall be their winding-sheet ; 
And every turf beneath thy feet 
Shall be a soldier' s sepulchre. 

Blank verse is without rhyme ; as, 

Here rest the great and good ; here they repose 
After their generous toil. A sacred band, 
They take their sleep together, while the year 
Comes with its early flowers to deck their graves, 
And gathers them again as winter frowns. 



THE END. 



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